Free Will, Reincarnation, and Karma

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Introduction
The following essay is concerned with free will, and reincarnation. The idea of the former has been a thorn in the side of Western Philosophy for centuries. What we propose here is that free will probably does not exist. Yet, there may be a very limited form of it. With potential future advances in the emerging paradigm of Multi-Dimensional Science it may become possible to find out to what extent free will does, or does not exist. The same goes for reincarnation.

The Mind
In Eastern Philosophies notably, the individual Mind has sometimes been regarded as being a problem in the way of inner spiritual progress. It is seen often, or not as being like a machine, or a computer. Unfortunately, the Soul, or a lower manifestation of Its energies have been "entangled" with It. Thus, it can be seen that the Mind is essentially in control of the Soul. To gain an idea of how powerful it is, meditation, or attempting to meditate can often be impossible to begin with. The Mind behaves like a monkey continually active with any number of "unnecessary" inner thoughts. A set of phrases are usually required to help still the mental activity. But even then the task can be difficult, if not impossible for some.


Four Key Reasons Against The Existence Of "Free Will"

They are as follows:-
i) Most scientists, and philosophers tend to think that our Minds are largely, if not wholly deterministic in complex ways.
ii) Quite a number of Mystics such as Kabir, and Guru Nanak believed that free will is an "illusion."
iii) The Subconscious, and the Unconscious Mind in Western Psychology clearly suggests that we probably have no "real" free will.
iv) A claim made in neuroscience appears to indicate that our decision-making has its initial origins first in the Subconcious, and Unconcious Mind before it becomes a concious desire leading possibly to an action.




The Spiritual Will = Free Will?

It could be argued that the Spiritual Will is genuine free will because it is said to be unconditioned by anything. It is pure instantaneous Knowledge. It can be intuitive in which It can present knowledge inwardly without recourse to reasoning. On the other hand, the Mind can be conditioned positively, and negatively by the outer world, and by other factors.



Reincarnation.
The concept that we have lived many, many lives before is very ancient. Reincarnation, along with the Law of Karma (implying Action) is arguably the only explanation for the injustices of the world. Such "injustices" are due in the main to bad actions of a past life, or lives of an individual. Generally speaking, we have no memories of our previous birth, or births in the physical world. This is said to be a good thing as it might overwhelm us.
There is evidence to suggest that Christianity originally had reincarnation as a part of it teachings. But this was regarded as anathema by people in power who probably had little, or no real spiritual vision.
The mystical dimension of Islam is known as Sufism. Some of its sects also indicate that reincarnation exists.
Similiarly, Judaism may have had some belief in the doctrine of rebirth. This is indicated at times in the interpretation of the Kabbalah, or the Tree of Life.
Ofcourse, reincarnation plays a prominent part in Hinduism, and Buddhism. However, ideas may vary as to how reincarnation, and karma "work".
There is some serious scientific evidence suggestive of reincarnation. Here, we point to the often quoted work of Professor Ian Stevenson. This involved a huge number of cases of notably children who claimed to remember a past life, and often, or not, their obscure details of their previous family, and friends were proven correct. Furthermore, birthmarks appeared on certain persons which were "due" to certain types of death (eg. gunshot wounds) in a "previous life."

The Law of Karmic Justice

There are many examples of the possible "workings" of Karma. Here, are some such instances, but it must stressed that the brief examples here may be offensive.

i) A man is born blind, or develops blindness in early life. In a previous life he had blinded someone deliberately (ie Role-Reversal).
ii) A man is defrauded of the monies of his business by an accountant. In a previous life, he is the perpetrator of a like crime, and now becomes the victim in the present incarnation.
iii) Some children during a War in the Middle East are murdered by irresponsible soldiers. In a previous birth, or births, the children possibly in separate incidents did the same thing as adults.
Incidently, Spiritualists claim that children may grow up in the "Spirit World," and hence, complete their cycle of life.
iv) A child is abducted, and murdered by a perpetrator. In a previous life, the child is an adult, and committed the same offence as the perpetrator.
v) A woman in life A aborts a child she does not want. In life B she gives birth (or re-birth) to a child she wants but shortly dies afterwards.
Again, Spiritualists have claimed that sometimes a young soul "decides" after birth not to continue in the tiny physical form, and hence, leaves it for another.
Many other examples could be conjured up. Unlike the above, there could be "non-specific," or "blanket" causes(notably natural disasters) in which accumulated types of past karmas are paid off via varying degrees of suffering. However, some degree of remission may occur. This, too, may be dependent on "good" past karmas.
It is said a Guru, or some other non-Indian Teacher has the power to give remission, but the pralabdh, or fate karma has to be generally gone through. An example of this is the shortening of the duration period of a fated illness. To what extent this can occur, probably depends on the spiritual status of the Teacher.
Diseases, and disabilities of one sort, or another may also reflect the paying of certain kinds of actions of a past birth, or birth. The aim of all this (including the above) is not purely retributive, but meant to help achieve positive psychological changes within a person, and act as a goad towards greater spiritual evolution. Indeed, it has been claimed that people in the post mortem state may actually "choose" certain ailments, and/disabilities irrespective of whether they karmically deserve it, or not in the interest of spiritual "evolution".

So-called hypnotic regressions can throw some light on how karmas works. The psychic readings of Edgar Cayce is possibly a good instance of this, and the authoress Gina Cerminara wrote a number of eye opening books in connection with him, and his work. The Seth Material is also another interesting example of greater light on the matter.
As can be seen the subject of reincarnation, and karma is a huge, and indeed, complex subject. As such it is well beyond the scope of this essay.


Creation
Many mystical traditions indicate that the purpose of our life is to re-discover who, and what we really are....the Higher Self, or the God Within which is meant to be our real Spiritual Being. The seemingly "endless" rounds of reincarnation aim to achieve this via the accumulation of more, and more good actions which takes us towards that Power. In other words, the increased positive conditioning of the individual Mind, and individual Will. In turn, this makes It more responsive, and agreeable to the Higher Power notably via some form of meditation.

At the "start" of creation since God, or the Higher Power could not separate Itself from Itself, parts of It could not help wanting to experience ItSelves in the lower worlds for the first time. Unfortunately, with further, and further reincarnations (into various living forms) It became more, and more under the sway of the Mind. As a result, It came to know more, and more of what suffering is, and what degrees of happiness are for the first time.
From the highest planes everything that has happened, or will happen in the lower planes already exists in a "timeless" Eternal Now. There may be a kind of progressive Spiritual Relativity. For example, if we enter plane A we may, or may not experience at some point the "past," and "future" of that plane. Then, we may enter plane B which is more subtle, more real, and more fantastic than plane A. Again, we may be able to see the "past", and "future" of this plane in a state of superconciousness. In other words, there could be an advanced non-physical form of what might be called "space-time" or Spiritual Relativity as mentioned.

Meditation

The aim of many forms of meditation is to connect in some way with the "Higher Self". The ultimate aim ideally is to achieve liberation from reincarnation, and attain the highest planes/levels of superconcious bliss where the desires for anything of this, and the next world are totally extinguished. This liberation is the ultimate purpose of human life. Through endless rebirths the Soul is largely imprisoned by the individual conditioned Mind, and through various objects, and people of this physical world It has been trying to find Real Happiness. Yet, to no avail as everything is temporary. Deep down It actually wants to return to the "highest" Regions to true, and lasting Bliss. Via the accumulation of good actions, or karmas, and Grace (unearned spiritual help) one may get help from the Higher Power via a living Guru, or by some other means (eg. an inner "Master").
In the following we list some basic aspects of the meditational experience. It does not pretend to be totally comprehensive, but it may be of some interest.

a) The Emergence of the "Higher Self."
With the correct practice of meditation one may experience a gradual emergence of a Higher Conciousness which can become part of ones Lower Self, and the individual Mind. Yet, It should have a growing control over ones thoughts, and can still them in an inner "sea" of internal Bliss.

b) Effort, inspires Subtle Inner Grace, Subtle Grace inspires Greater Effort

The likely reality is that we cannot by a sheer effort of our conditioned Mind, and our individually conditioned Will be able to transform ourselves into a better human being (unless there has been some positive conditioning in former lives). This requires the gradual subtle emergence of a Higher Power. It acts as Grace to inspire greater effort in meditation.
The idea of "I" doing spiritual practice is probably illusionary as it is only this Inner Power which inspires the Mind to carry on. Thus, if a guru says he, or she has been meditating for many years this in a sense is a huge lie, and deception. It is the Higher Power, or the "Higher Self" attempting to control the individual Mind, more, and more. Most, if not all the credit should go to this Power.

c) The Flow of Devotional Energy.
Ideally, the disciple, especially if he, or she has an outer living Master should carry out his, or her actions selflessly as if He, or indeed, She were physically present. This is very powerful, but one needs to be fully committed for any success to occur. One may experience at times the flow of intense ecstasy, and become aware of some of the impurities being "washed away" naturally, and spontaneously.

Some Serious "Ethical" Problems

If the individual conditioned Mind appears to largely control the Soul then this is an unnatural situation. Meditation can help bring about the reverse situation as already indicated. However, the success on this may depend on what ones spiritual connection is, be it a living outer Teacher, or even an inner One. Moreover, the progress "upward" into higher planes represent higher energies of the Spirit. The highest realms represent the more purer, and more subtler ones, and if one is connected with a Teacher (or indeed, the Higher Self probably) from that level, the degree of purification, and control of the Mind would be far better. Unfortunately, there is no "objective" way of ascertaining this situation.
The idea of the Mind as being largely conditioned raises powerful ethical considerations.

i) How can one be made liable to the punishments (or indeed rewards) of certain actions in this life? Evidence suggests that the "Soul" judges the Mind Itself via the life review in near death experience, and ofcourse after death itself. This is an absurdity in one sense, and arguably a form psychic entrapment as the Mind of the Soul feels guilt, and feels the need to make amends. In other words, the former has been "tricked" in the interests of "spiritual evolution".

ii) How can it be right if a person "can be made" to do wrong actions so that the victim receives his, or her "just desserts" from another life? In effect, it implies that the perpetrator is in a sense acting out a Play in which he, or she has to act "unwittingly" as an agent for the Law of Karma metering out "punishment(s)"? And if what someone did was right to ensure "punishment" for the victim it implies that the whole world of karmic credits, and debits is a highly "exact." If this were not so there would be no "real justice?" In other words, a set-up.
Yet, it may be perfectly possible that there are "injustices" which are not karmically caused by a previous life, or lives. Yet, they may have somekind of effect which helps to "cleanse" the individual psychically, and "spiritually".

iii) All this indicates something very important. Maybe we are meant to realize via experience that karma is a form of "sham" justice? In one sense, it appears right, but there is also another way of looking at it.


iv) If the Soul has been tricked by the conditioned Mind to suffer more,and more...why should It partake in reincarnation? After all the former is meant to be a part of God, or some Higher Power?

v) If it is largely, or wholly the Higher Power which can ultimately take us to the higher worlds, and not really our individual efforts then the whole thing can be seen as an elaborate "farce".

vi) Morever, if God, or the Higher Power is qualitively the same as the Soul then potentially It is the manifestation of the Supreme. But since the "beginning" of creation parts of ItSelf have trapped ItSelf in Its own creation in the process of experience. Again, if God ultimately equals Soul then at a simple whim It should be able to return to the highest planes were reincarnation does not exist irrespective of any bad actions, or karmas.
Yet, it is claimed that if one tried to do this in the post mortem state it would take alot longer as life is far easier. Thus, reincarnation into the physical world is "necessary" as life is a lot more difficult, and spiritual progress is much quicker.

A Form of Spiritual Compensation?

What we are suggesting now may seem fantastic. The creation of the visible, and invisible creation may be a "mistake" in part. At the "start" of creation,the Soul(s)(or "God") experienced the "need" to experience the degrees of difference between good, and evil in order to achieve an understanding of Itself, and Its Real relationship with Its own Creation. The seemingly only way to do this is to let the projected part of the Soul to be more, and more enslaved by the individual Mind (Lower energy). This could also be seen as an "educative deception," or a grave injustice (or "mistake" mentioned earlier). As ongoing "compensation" for this the Soul before, and after Its "death" may get greater Grace. If the Soul were totally responsible for Its karmas, or actions in the physical world this would not be the case, and It would suffer alot more.
Furthermore, the seeming "fact" that we,(our Selves, or Souls) have to go through "countless" rebirths probably suggests that our spiritual evolution is largely the outcome of "trial, and error." It may also indicate that we have little, or no free will, or else we could have arguably achieved spiritual liberation from reincarnation, and the lower worlds a longtime ago....simply by force of reason.
There are many aspects of this metaphysical subject which are beyond the scope of this essay. Anyway, it should be food for thought .........................




  A Certain Ethical Problem in Esotericism



The following essay(2006)comes the Kheper website, and is similiar to the last metaphysical "discourse," .

This short "thought-piece" challenges the esoteric orthodoxy of many traditions. It centres on the concept, and likely reality of reincarnation, and the so-called law of karma, or "perfect justice". It is accepted without question especially in the Buddhist, and Hindu traditions.
Reincarnation is also the "only" real explanation for the so-called injustices of life itself. Yet, it is believed rightly, or wrongly that there is a fundamental "flaw" in it which undermines the need for the "continous necessity" of re-birth, and indeed, the law of karma itself. This can no longer be ignored, and needs to be openly discussed as never before. Here, we will just touch upon the key areas.....
1. Free Will, or Conditioned Free Will?

It is not our intention here to review the notion of free will in Western Philosophy. Most people though would agree that our thoughts, words,and actions are largely conditioned by our past. Pure unconditioned free will is largely, if not wholly "non-existent". As such the rewards, and punishments we receive in this life due to the present, or past actions of another former birth are in the main due to our mental conditioning.

2. Virtual Non-Awareness of Subconcious, and Unconcious Forces Moulding the Concious Mind.

The central ethical problem is this. Since we are largely unaware of what makes us decide the way we do then it becomes clear that "we" are not totally responsible for our actions. In various esoteric traditions it can be said that our (mechanical) mind is in control of the soul (both can be seen as independent "entities" which interact with one another). The injustice of this is that we are really unaware of this predicament, and how it so greatly influences us to do right, or wrong. How many times have we heard people say that "I did not mean to do it", or "I cannot help the way I am"?
Western, and eastern psychologies recognize this in their own ways. If we were fully aware of how, and why we do certain things, and were in true concious control then the law of karma would be rightly applicable. The opposite situation appears to be true, and makes a mockery of the resulting "justice". The question is why? There are esoteric answers but they do not seem to fully justify this situation as we shall shortly see.
Furthermore, with the possible future emergence of Multi-Dimensional Science we may well be able to find how much of our minds are conditioned from actions in this, and previous lifetimes. This could be undertaken via controlled experiments.


3. Four Basic Pro, and Con Arguments, and the Possible Interactions of the Higher Self.

Many psychic communications from the "lower planes" usually claim that "free will" exists. Man is seen as the concious architect of his destiny. However, when we come to great mystics such as the Sufi, and Christian ones (eg. Rumi, and Boehme) it would appear that "free will" is nothing but an illusion as perceived from the "higher planes" of Being. Everything is seen in this world, and the next as the outworkings of the Divine.
Anyway, let us see the key arguments for, and against what has so far been discussed.
1a) In order to achieve spiritual evolution (ie. learning via experience to try, and hopefully bring about higher virtues, and greater purification in ourselves from one life to another) people have no choice but to have a mind through which the soul has to somehow function. Reincarnation notably into the limited physical universe is the only way to do this.
2a) The above claim assumes wrongly that an almighty, and super intelligent God, or the Universal Power cannot come up with something far better, and much fairer to achieve spiritual unfoldment, and ultimately union with the Divine after seemingly endless incarnations. In other words, we do not have full justification for the present "universal" predicament.
1b) The amount of suffering via life after life is nothing compared with the infinite bliss, and final union with the Divine.Thus, whether the process is"unfair" in any way is largely immaterial.
2b) Again, this does not address the central ethical problem of human beings making, and paying off good, and bad actions which are largely the outcome of conditioned free will. This is naturally confounded by the seeming fact that we are unaware of the subconcious, and unconcious influences of our minds!
3a) It has been claimed that what we are discussing here is simply beyond the mind, and the reasons for it can only be understood intuitively.
3b) Many people would regard this "argument" as a cop out when perhaps we have not really thought, and/or researched hard enough. Yet, to be fair it would also be right to say that we cannot explain everything in esotericism by the mind as there are always worlds, and forms of knowledge which are totally ineffable.
4a) In certain hypnotic regressions into past lives, and especially what happens between lives it has been claimed that souls are usually given a plan for the next incarnation. Indeed, they may well agree to receive specific negative experiences (meant to be remedial rather than retributive) that may help them to "grow" more spiritually. These are usually the result of "their" past actions. More incredibly, certain "advanced" souls may "volunteer" to experience bad things for the ultimate aim of speeding up their progress towards total perfection (the ultimate goal of spiritual evolution via experience after "endless" rounds of rebirth. and probable union with the "Divine").
4b) From the general mystical perspective, lives on earth,and other planets are meant to be a means of learning via experience for the pressing need to develop greater, and greater spiritual qualities. This ofcourse can be an uneven path, and may result in a certain amount of spiritual "devolution".
An added dimension to this is the Higher Self which is our Pure Being working to a certain extent via the lower subtle bodies including the mind (ie. the mental body). It is the "God Within", and at the same time is part of the Infinite Power. It is who, or what we really are. Reincarnation is the way in which we re-discover our Selves. Since It can manifest ItSelf as our Chosen Ideal (eg. Christ, Krishna et al), and act as an inner guide before, or after death. It emanates from realms well beyond our limited understanding of time, and space.
In the light of what has been said the Higher Self may during the intermediate stage between births, and deaths may make the lower self, and lower mind accept certain future negative experiences to encourage spiritual growth. This whole process is laid bare in a state of superconciousness when one can see ones previous lives instantaneously, and objectively. It is then that we understand "everything". But is this really a full moral justification? Is it right that when one is incarnate that one is largely unaware of this arrangement if we had agreed to it conciously in the intermediate stage? Again, let us repeat ourselves is there not a better way of doing things? The answer we think is yea!
If what we have been discussing are part justifications rather than full ones it could perhaps even be argued that to a large degree reincarnation, and the so-called law of karma are "null,and void." In the physical world we could perhaps get legal recompense for such an "injustice!" In the spiritual one we have a different ball game. The person, or rather Being to be blamed ofcourse would be our own Higher Self which ofcourse to the limited vision, and understanding of our human mind is absurd! All the same, if our initial claim is indeed correct it should be possible to change things on the "other side" (or via controlled OOBEs, or meditation) with the help possibly of like-minded beings. It could be powerful bargaining counter for the lower mind, and self to achieve liberation from the wheel of births, and death (plus possible other matters) since the very ethical basis of this whole process of "evolution" is seriously in doubt.

4.Beyond the Mind, Beyond All Reason?

In a most bizarre fashion all that has been said for, and against this major ethical issue in esoterism is all correct. If we assume that the infinite psycho-spiritual universe consists of non-absolute truths then this would be possible, and "acceptable!" In other words, Esoteric Relativism.
On the other hand, the endless unseen realities would have absolute truths. Such Esoteric Universalism seems to be more "rational", and acceptable. Yet, it could be said that if the unseen (and indeed, the visible) universe is infinite then everything, and anything is, and can be possible. In effect, it goes beyond all reason which would be seen as the "ultimate(!)" limited illusion.
There are certain arguments which could be used in support for Esoteric Relativism,and they could include the following;-
i) Who created God? This is the classic question notably found in Western Philosophy. One answer is ofcourse is that He created Himself..... and we as the Higher Self are a part of It,and potentially It! This whole notion ofcourse defies reason...
ii) The universe in its "totality(!)" is probably infinite. This too defies reason because how can anything be limitless, and beyond our ability to imagine, and completely quantify in any "scientific" manner?
iii) In the "scientific" many worlds theory it is perfectly possible that parallel universes exist with an infinite number of alternate histories. Ofcourse, if correct this has some rather interesting implications for mysticism, and especially our claimed "unfairness" of the reincarnation process in connection with the mind, and conditoned free will.
No doubt we could present some more "evidence" that Esoteric Relativism could be the Absolute Reality so to speak. Whether it is, or not is largely unprovable by normal means, and will probably remain an Eternal Mystery. Yet, the claimed "unfairness" of reincarnation just mentioned would be fully, or partly justified in an infinite number of ways, and indeed, in an infinite number of worlds. This point was already expressed differently right at the start of this section of the present essay.
Indeed,there would probably be realities where reincarnation as a means of spiritual evolution would not exist. Again, such realities would inhabit countless numbers of different universes, and have their own kinds of "justifications." In the end the Truth cannot really be limited by finite reality but is boundless, and creative in any infinite number of ways both conceivable, and inconceivable to our limited mind, and vision.
What we have been reading here is very important. It can also be expanded by further debate, and research in the future. It is something which is well worth exploring.

Tao

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Not to be confused with Tau.

For other uses, see Tao (disambiguation).

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Tao or Dao (/taʊ/, /daʊ/; Chinese: 道; pinyin: Dào (help·info)) is a Chinese word meaning 'way', 'path', 'route', or sometimes more loosely, 'doctrine' or 'principle'. Within the context of traditional Chinese philosophy and religion, Tao is a metaphysical concept originating with Laozi that gave rise to a religion (Wade–Giles, Tao Chiao; Pinyin, Daojiao) and philosophy (Wade–Giles, Tao chia; Pinyin, Daojia) referred to in English with the single term Taoism. The concept of Tao was later adopted in Confucianism, Chán and Zen Buddhism and more broadly throughout East Asian philosophy and religion in general. Within these contexts Tao signifies the primordial essence or fundamental nature of the universe. In the foundational text of Taoism, the Tao Te Ching, Laozi explains that Tao is not a 'name' for a 'thing' but the underlying natural order of the universe whose ultimate essence is difficult to circumscribe. Tao is thus "eternally nameless” (Dao De Jing-32. Laozi) and to be distinguished from the countless 'named' things which are considered to be its manifestations.
In Taoism, Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism, the object of spiritual practice is to 'become one with the tao' (Tao Te Ching) or to harmonise one's will with Nature (cf. Stoicism) in order to achieve 'effortless action' (Wu wei). This involves meditative and moral practices. Important in this respect is the Taoist concept of De (德; virtue).
In all its uses, Tao is considered to have ineffable qualities that prevent it from being defined or expressed in words. It can, however, be known or experienced, and its principles (which can be discerned by observing Nature) can be followed or practiced. Much of East Asian philosophical writing focuses on the value of adhering to the principles of Tao and the various consequences of failing to do so. In Confucianism and religious forms of Taoism these are often explicitly moral/ethical arguments about proper behavior, while Buddhism and more philosophical forms of Taoism usually refer to the natural and mercurial outcomes of action (comparable to karma). Tao is intrinsically related to the concepts yin and yang (pinyin: yīnyáng), where every action creates counter-actions as unavoidable movements within manifestations of the Tao, and proper practice variously involves accepting, conforming to, or working with these natural developments.
The concept of Tao differs from conventional (western) ontology : it is an active and holistic conception of Nature, rather than a static, atomistic one. It is worth comparing to the original Logos of Heraclitus, c. 500 BC

Contents [hide] 1 Description and uses of the concept 1.1 De 2 Religious, philosophical, and cultural interpretations 2.1 Daoist interpretations 2.1.1 Diversity of views 2.2 Confucian interpretations 2.3 Buddhist interpretations 2.4 Neo-Confucian interpretations 2.5 Christian Interpretations 3 Graphic and linguistic derivations 3.1 Characters 3.2 Pronunciations 3.3 Meanings 3.4 Etymologies 3.5 Loanwords 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Citations 7 Bibliography 7.1 Further reading

[edit] Description and uses of the concept

The ba gua, a symbol commonly used to represent the Dao and its pursuit.

The word "Dao" (道) has a variety of meanings in both ancient and modern Chinese language. Aside from its purely prosaic use to mean road, channel, path, doctrine, or similar,^[1] the word has acquired a variety of differing and often confusing metaphorical, philosophical and religious uses. In most belief systems, Dao is used symbolically in its sense of 'way' as the 'right' or 'proper' way of existence, or in the context of ongoing practices of attainment or of the full coming into being, or the state of enlightenment or spiritual perfection that is the outcome of such practices.^[2] Some scholars make sharp distinctions between moral or ethical usage of the word Dao that is prominent in Confucianism and religious Daoism and the more metaphysical usage of the term used in philosophical Daoism and most forms of Mahayana Buddhism;^[3] others maintain that these are not separate usages or meanings, seeing them as mutually inclusive and compatible approaches to defining the concept.^[4] The original use of the term was as a form of praxis rather than theory – a term used as a convention to refer to something that otherwise cannot be discussed in words – and early writings such as the Dao De Jing and the I Ching make pains to distinguish between conceptions of Dao (sometimes referred to as "named Dao") and the Dao itself (the "unnamed Dao"), which cannot be expressed or understood in language.^{[notes 1][notes 2][5]} Liu Da asserts that Dao is properly understood as an experiential and evolving concept, and that there are not only cultural and religious differences in the interpretation of Dao, but personal differences that reflect the character of individual practitioners.^[6]
Dao can be roughly thought of as the flow of the universe, or as some essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the universe balanced and ordered.^[7] It is related to the idea of qi, the essential energy of action and existence. Dao is a non-dual concept – it is the greater whole from which all the individual elements of the universe derive. Keller considers it similar to the negative theology of Western scholars,^[8] but Dao is rarely an object of direct worship, being treated more like the Hindu concepts of karma or dharma than as a divine object.^[9] Dao is more commonly expressed in the relationship between wu (void or emptiness, in the sense of wuji) and yinyang (the natural dynamic balance between opposites), leading to its central principle of wu wei (non-action, or action without force).
Dao is usually described in terms of elements of nature, and in particular as similar to water. Like water it is undifferentiated, endlessly self-replenishing, soft and quiet but immensely powerful, and impassively generous.^[10] Much of Daoist philosophy centers on the cyclical continuity of the natural world, and its contrast to the linear, goal-oriented actions of human beings.

[edit] De

Main article: De (Chinese)

De (德 "power; virtue; integrity") is the term generally used to refer to proper adherence to Dao; De is the active living or cultivation of the way.^[11] Particular things (things with names) that manifest from Dao have their own inner nature that they follow, in accordance with the Dao, and the following of this inner nature is De. Wuwei (Pinyin: wúwéi) or naturalness are contingent on understanding and conforming to this inner nature, which is interpreted variously from a personal, individual nature to a more generalized notion of human nature within the greater universe.^[12]
Historically, the concept of De differed significantly between Daoists and Confucianists. Confucianism was largely a moral system emphasizing the values of humaneness, righteousness, and filial duty, and so conceived De in terms of obedience to rigorously defined and codified social rules. Daoists took a broader, more naturalistic/metaphysical view on the relationship between humankind and the universe, and considered social rules to be at best a derivative reflection of the natural and spontaneous interactions between people, and at worst calcified structure that inhibited naturalness and created conflict. This led to some philosophical and political conflicts between Daoists and Confucianists; Several sections of the works attributed to Chuang Tzu are dedicated to critiques of the failures of Confucianism.

[edit] Religious, philosophical, and cultural interpretations

[edit] Daoist interpretations

See also: Daoism

“	[Dao] means a road, path, way; and hence, the way in which one does something; method, doctrine, principle. The Way of Heaven, for example, is ruthless; when autumn comes 'no leaf is spared because of its beauty, no flower because of its fragrance'. The Way of Man means, among other things, procreation; and eunuchs are said to be 'far from the Way of Man'. Chudao (pinyin: chūdào is 'the way to be a monarch', i.e. the art of ruling. Each school of philosophy has its Dao, its doctrine of the way in which life should be ordered. Finally in a particular school of philosophy whose followers came to be called Daoists, Dao meant 'the way the universe works'; and ultimately something very like God, in the more abstract and philosophical sense of that term.	”
—The way and its power: a study of the Dao De Jing and its place in Chinese thought (Grove Press, 1958). ISBN 0-8021-5085-3, Arthur Waley

The Dao is what gives Daoism its English name, in both its philosophical and religious forms. Dao is the fundamental and central concept of these schools of thought. Daoism perceives Dao as a natural order underlying the substance and activity of the universe. Language and the "naming" of Dao is regarded negatively within Daoism; the Dao fundamentally exists and operates outside the realm of differentiation and linguistic constraints.^[13]

[edit] Diversity of views

There is no single orthodox Daoist view of Dao. All forms of Daoism center around Dao and De, but there is a broad variety of distinct interpretations among sects and even individuals within the same sect. Despite this diversity, there are some clear, common patterns and trends within Daoism and its branches.^[14]
The diversity of Daoist interpretations of Dao can be seen across four texts representative of major streams of thought within Daoism. All four texts are used in modern Daoism with varying acceptance and emphasis among sects. The Dao De Jing is the oldest text and representative of a speculative and philosophical approach to the Dao. The Tao T'i Lun is an eighth century exegesis of the Dao De Jing, written from a well-educated and religious viewpoint, that represents the traditional scholarly perspective. The devotional perspective of Dao is expressed in the Ch'ing Ching Ching, a liturgical text that was originally composed during the Song Dynasty and is used as a hymnal in religious Daoism, especially among eremites. The Zhuangzi (often spelled Chuang Tzu) uses literary devices such as tales, allegories, and narratives to relate the Dao to the reader, illustrating a metaphorical method of viewing and expressing the Dao.^[15]

A Taoist monk practicing Chinese calligraphy with water on stone. Water calligraphy, like sand mandalas, evokes the ephemeral nature of physical reality.

The forms and variations of religious Daoism are incredibly diverse. They integrate a broad spectrum of academic, ritualistic, supernatural, devotional, literary, and folk practices with a multitude of results. Buddhism and Confucianism particularly affected the way many sects of Daoism framed, approached, and perceived the Dao. The multitudinous branches of religious Daoism accordingly regard the Dao, and interpret writings about it, in innumerable ways. Thus, outside of a few broad similarities, it is difficult to provide an accurate yet clear summary of their interpretation of Dao.^[16]
A central tenet within most varieties of religious Daoism is that the Dao is ever-present, but must be manifested, cultivated, and/or perfected in order to be realized. It is the source of the universe and the seed of its primordial purity resides in all things. The manifestation of Dao is De, which rectifies and invigorates the world with the Dao's radiance.^[17]
Alternatively, philosophical Daoism regards the Dao as a non-religious concept; it is not a deity to be worshiped, nor is it a mystical Absolute in the religious sense of the Hindu Brahman. Joseph Wu remarked of this conception of Dao, "Dao is not religiously available; nor is it even religiously relevant." The writings of Lao Tzu and Chang Tzu are tinged with esoteric tones and approach humanism and naturalism as paradoxes.^[18] In contrast to the esotericism typically found in religious systems, the Dao is not transcendent to the self nor is mystical attainment an escape from the world in philosophical Daoism. The self steeped in Dao is the self grounded in its place within the natural universe. A person dwelling within the Dao excels in themselves and their activities.^[19]
However, this distinction is complicated by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of Daoist schools, sects and movements.^[20] Some scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao.^[21] According to Kirkland, "most scholars who have seriously studied Daoism, both in Asia and the West, have finally abandoned the simplistic dichotomy of Dàojiā and Dàojiào, 'philosophical Daoism' and 'religious Daoism.'"^[22]

[edit] Confucian interpretations

See also: Confucianism

The Dao, or Way, of Confucius can be said to be 'Truth'. Confucianism regards the Way, or Truth, as concordant with a particular approach to life, politics, and tradition. It is held as equally necessary and well regarded as De (virtue) and jen (humanity). Confucius presents a humanistic 'Dao'. He only rarely speaks of the t'ien Dao (Way of Heaven). An influential early Confucian, Hsiin Tzu, explicitly noted this contrast. Though he acknowledged the existence and celestial importance of the Way of Heaven, he insisted that the Dao principally concerns human affairs.^[23]
As a formal religious concept in Confucianism, Dao is the Absolute towards which the faithful move. In Zhongyong (The Doctrine of the Mean), harmony with the Absolute is equivalent to integrity and sincerity. The Great Learning expands on this concept explaining that the Way illuminates virtue, improves the people, and resides within the purest morality. During the Tang Dynasty, Han Yu further formalized and defined Confucian beliefs as an apologetic response to Buddhism. He emphasized the ethics of the Way. He explicitly paired 'Dao' and 'De', focusing on humane nature and righteousness. He also framed and elaborated on a "dàotǒng" (tradition of the Way) in order to reject the traditions of Buddhism.^[23]

[edit] Buddhist interpretations

See also: Chinese Buddhism and Zen

Buddhism first started to spread in China during the first century AD and was experiencing a golden age of growth and maturation by the fourth century AD. Hundreds of collections of Pali and Sanskrit texts were translated into Chinese by Buddhist monks within a short period of time. Dhyana was translated as ch'an (and later as zen), giving Zen Buddhism its name. The use of Chinese concepts, such as Dao, that were close to Buddhist ideas and terms helped spread the religion and make it more amenable to the Chinese people. However, the differences between the Sanskrit and Chinese terminology lead to some initial misunderstandings and the eventual development of East Asian Buddhism as a distinct entity. As part of this process, many Chinese words introduced their rich semantic and philosophical associations into Buddhism, including the use of 'Dao' for central concepts and tenets of Buddhism.^[24]
Pai-chang Huai-hai told a student who was grappling with difficult portions of suttas, "Take up words in order to manifest meaning and you'll obtain 'meaning'. Cut off words and meaning is emptiness. Emptiness is the Dao. The Dao is cutting off words and speech." Ch'an (Zen) Buddhists regard the Dao as synonymous with both the Buddhist Path (marga) and the results of it; the Eightfold Path and Buddhist enlightenment (satori). Pai-chang's statement plays upon this usage in the context of the fluid and varied Chinese usage of 'Dao'. Words and meaning are used to refer to rituals and practice. The 'emptiness' refers to the Buddhist concept of sunyata. Finding the Dao and Buddha-nature is not simply a matter of formulations, but an active response to the Four Noble Truths that cannot be fully expressed or conveyed in words and concrete associations. The use of 'Dao' in this context refers to the literal 'way' of Buddhism, the return to the universal source, dharma, proper meditation, and nirvana, among other associations. 'Dao' is commonly used in this fashion by Chinese Buddhists, heavy with associations and nuanced meanings.^[25]

[edit] Neo-Confucian interpretations

See also: Neoconfucianism

During the Song Dynasty, Neo-Confucians regarded Dao as the purest thing-in-itself. Shao Yong regarded the Dao as the origin of heaven, earth, and everything within them. In contrast, Zhang Zai presented a vitalistic Dao that was the fundamental component or effect of ch'i, the motive energy behind life and the world. A number of later scholars adopted this interpretation, such as Tai Chen during the Qing Dynasty.^[23]
Zhu Xi, Cheng Ho, and Cheng Yi perceived the Dao in the context of li (Principle) and t'ien li (the Principle of Heaven). Cheng Hao regarded the fundamental matter of li, and thus Dao, to be humaneness. Developing compassion, altruism, and other humane virtues is the following of the Way. Cheng Yi followed this interpretation, elaborating on this perspective of Dao through teachings about yin-yang interactions, the cultivation and preservation of life; and the axiom of a morally just universe.^[23]
In total, the Dao is equated with the Absolute. Wang Fuzhi expressed the Dao as the tai chi, The Great Ultimate, as well as the road leading to it. Nothing exists apart from the Principle of Heaven in Neo-Confucianism. The Way is contained within all things. Thus, the religious life is not an elite or special journey for Neo-Confucians. The normal, mundane life is the path that leads to the Absolute, because the Absolute is contained within the mundane objects and events of daily life.^[23]

[edit] Christian Interpretations

See also: Christianity

Noted Christian author, C.S. Lewis, used the Tao to describe "the doctrine of objective value, the belief that certain attitudes are really true, and others really false, the kind of thing the universe is and the kind of things we are." ^[26]He asserted that every religion and philosophy is an attempt to line up with the Tao—the way mankind was designed to be. In Lewis' thinking, God created the Tao and fully displayed it through the person of Jesus Christ. Christianity, then, would be the path that lines human beings up with the Tao most effectively.
Also the Greek word used in N.T. for the Way is ὁδός (hodos). Here the Way refers to the path of righteousness and salvation as revealed through Christ.

[edit] Graphic and linguistic derivations

The term dao 道 is analyzable in terms of Chinese characters, alternate dào "way" or dǎo "guide" pronunciations and meanings, a possible Proto-Indo-European etymology, and loanwords such as English Dao or dao.

Bronze script for dao 道

Large seal script for dao 道

Small seal script for dao 道

[edit] Characters

Dao is written with the Chinese character 道 in both Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese. It typifies the most common Chinese character classification of "radical-phonetic" or "phono-semantic" graphs, which compound a "radical" or "signific" (roughly providing semantic information) with a "phonetic" (suggesting ancient pronunciation).
Dao 道 graphically combines the chuo 辶 (or 辵) "go" radical and shou 首 "head" phonetic. Furthermore, dao 道 is the phonetic element in dao 導 "guide; lead" (with the cun 寸 "thumb; hand" radical) and dao 檤 "a tree name" (with the mu 木 "tree; wood" radical).
The traditional interpretation of the 道 character, dating back to the (121 CE) Shuowen Jiezi dictionary, was a rare huiyi 會意 "compound ideogram" or "ideogrammic compound". The combination of chuo 辶 "go" and shou 首 "head" (numbers 162 and 185 in the Kangxi radicals) signified a "head going" or "to lead the way".
Dao is graphically distinguished between its earliest nominal meaning of dao 道 "way; road; path;" and the later verbal sense of "say". It should also be contrasted with dao 導 "lead the way; guide; conduct; direct; ". The Simplified character 导 for dao 導 has si 巳 "6th of the 12 Earthly Branches" in place of dao 道.
The earliest written forms of dao are bronzeware script and seal script characters from Zhou Dynasty (1045–256 BCE) bronzes and writings. These ancient dao characters more clearly depict the shou 首 "head" element as hair above a face. Some variants interchange the chuo 辵 "go; advance" radical with the xing 行 "go; road" radical, with the original bronze "crossroads" depiction written in the seal character with two 彳 and 亍 "footprints".
Bronze scripts for dao 道 occasionally include an element of shou 手 "hand" or cun 寸 "thumb; hand", which occurs in dao 導 "lead". The linguist Peter A. Boodberg explained,

This "dao with the hand element" is usually identified with the modern character導 dao < d'ôg, "to lead," "guide," "conduct," and considered to be a derivative or verbal cognate of the noun dao, "way," "path." The evidence just summarized would indicate rather that "dao with the hand" is but a variant of the basic dao and that the word itself combined both nominal and verbal aspects of the etymon. This is supported by textual examples of the use of the primary dao in the verbal sense "to lead" (e. g., Analects 1.5; 2.8) and seriously undermines the unspoken assumption implied in the common translation of Dao as "way" that the concept is essentially a nominal one. Dao would seem, then, to be etymologically a more dynamic concept than we have made it translation-wise. It would be more appropriately rendered by "lead way" and "lode" ("way," "course," "journey," "leading," "guidance"; cf. "lodestone" and "lodestar"), the somewhat obsolescent deverbal noun from "to lead."^[27]

These Confucian Analects citations of dao verbally meaning "to guide; to lead" are: "The Master said, 'In guiding a state of a thousand chariots, approach your duties with reverence and be trustworthy in what you say" and "The Master said, 'Guide them by edicts, keep them in line with punishments, and the common people will stay out of trouble but will have no sense of shame." ^[28]

[edit] Pronunciations

In Modern Standard Chinese, dao 道's pronunciations are tonally differentiated between 4th falling tone dào "way; path" and 3rd dipping tone dǎo (usually written 導) "guide; lead".
Besides these common 4th and 3rd tonal specifications dào 道 "way" and dǎo 道 (or 導) "guide", 道 has a rare 1st level tone dāo pronunciation in the regional idiomatic expression shénshendāodāo 神神道道 "odd; bizarre". This reduplication of shen 神 "spirit; god" and dao occurs in Northeast China speech.
In Middle Chinese (ca. 6th–10th centuries CE) tone name categories, 道 and 道/導 were qusheng 去聲 "departing tone" and shangsheng 上聲 "rising tone". Historical linguists have reconstructed Middle 道 "way" and 導 "guide" as d'âu- and d'âu: (Bernhard Karlgren),^[29] dau and dau (Zhou Fagao),^[30] daw^' and daw^h (Edwin G. Pulleyblank, "Early Middle"),^[31] dawX and daws (William H. Baxter),^[32] and dâu^B and dâu^C (Axel Schuessler).^[33]
In Old Chinese (ca. 7th–3rd centuries BCE) pronunciations, reconstructions for 道 "way" and 道/導 "guide" are *d'ôg (Karlgren), *dəw (Zhou), *dəgwx and *dəgwh (Li Fanggui),^[34] *luʔ (Baxter), and *lûʔ and *lûh (Schuessler).

[edit] Meanings

The word dao 道 has many meanings. For example, the Chinese Hanyu Da Zidian dictionary defines 39 meanings for dào 道 "way; path" and 6 for dǎo 道 (導) "guide; lead".^[35]
John DeFrancis's exemplary Chinese-English dictionary gives twelve meanings for dào 道 "way; path; say", three for dǎo 道 (or 導) "guide; lead", and one for dāo 道 in an "odd, bizarre" idiomatic expression. Note that brackets clarify abbreviations and ellipsis marks omitted usage examples.

²dào 道 N. [noun] road; path ◆M. [nominal measure word] ① (for rivers/topics/etc.) ② (for a course (of food); a streak (of light); etc.) ◆V. [verb] ① say; speak; talk (introducing direct quote, novel style) … ② think; suppose ◆B.F. [bound form, bound morpheme] ① channel ② way; reason; principle ③ doctrine ④ Daoism ⑤ line ⑥〈hist.〉 [history] ⑦ district; circuit canal; passage; tube ⑧ say (polite words) … See also ⁴dǎo, ⁴dāo ⁴dǎo 导/道[導/-] B.F. [bound form] ① guide; lead … ② transmit; conduct … ③ instruct; direct …
⁴dāo 道 in shénshendāodāo … 神神道道 R.F. [reduplicated form] 〈topo.〉[topolect, non-Mandarin "dialect"] odd; fantastic; bizarre ^[36]

[edit] Etymologies

The etymological linguistic origins of dao "way; path" depend upon its Old Chinese pronunciation, which scholars have tentatively reconstructed as *d'ôg, *dəgwx, *dəw, *luʔ, and *lûʔ.
Boodberg noted that the shou 首 "head" phonetic in the dao 道 character was not merely phonetic but "etymonic", analogous with English to head meaning "to lead" and "to tend in a certain direction," "ahead," "headway".

Paronomastically, dao is equated with its homonym 蹈 dao < d'ôg, "to trample," "tread," and from that point of view it is nothing more than a "treadway," "headtread," or "foretread "; it is also occasionally associated with a near synonym (and possible cognate) 迪 ti < d'iôk, "follow a road," "go along," "lead," "direct"; "pursue the right path"; a term with definite ethical overtones and a graph with an exceedingly interesting phonetic, 由 yu < djôg," "to proceed from." The reappearance of C162 [辶] "walk" in ti with the support of C157 [⻊] "foot" in dao, "to trample," "tread," should perhaps serve us as a warning not to overemphasize the headworking functions implied in dao in preference to those of the lower extremities.^[37]

Victor H. Mair proposes a Proto-Indo-European etymology for dao 道, supported by numerous cognates in Indo-European languages, and semantically similar Arabic and Hebrew words.

The archaic pronunciation of dao sounded approximately like drog or dorg. This links it to the Proto-Indo-European root drogh (to run along) and Indo-European dhorg (way, movement). Related words in a few modern Indo-European languages are Russian doroga (way, road), Polish droga (way, road), Czech dráha (way, track), Serbo-Croatian draga (path through a valley), and Norwegian dialect drog (trail of animals; valley). …. The nearest Sanskrit (Old Indian) cognates to Dao (drog) are dhrajas (course, motion) and dhraj (course). The most closely related English words are "track" and "trek", while "trail" and "tract" are derived from other cognate Indo-European roots. Following the Way, then, is like going on a cosmic trek. Even more unexpected than the panoply of Indo-European cognates for Dao (drog) is the Hebrew root d-r-g for the same word and Arabic t-r-q, which yields words meaning "track, path, way, way of doing things" and is important in Islamic philosophical discourse.^[38]

Axel Schuessler's etymological dictionary presents two possibilities for the tonal morphology of dào 道 "road; way; method" < Middle Chinese dâu^B < Old Chinese *lûʔ and dào 道 or 導 "to go along; bring along; conduct; explain; talk about" < Middle dâu^C < Old *lûh.^[39] Either dào 道 "the thing which is doing the conducting" is a Tone B (shangsheng 上聲 "rising tone") "endoactive noun" derivation from dào 導 "conduct", or dào 導 is a Later Old Chinese (Warring States Period) "general tone C" (qusheng 去聲 "departing tone") derivation from dào 道 "way".^[40] For a possible etymological connection, Schuessler notes the ancient Fangyan dictionary defines yu < *lokh 裕 and lu < *lu 猷 as Eastern Qi State dialectal words meaning dào < *lûʔ 道 "road".

[edit] Loanwords

Many languages have borrowed and adapted Chinese dao 道 "the way" as a loanword.
In Sinitic languages, this character 道 is pronounced as Cantonese dou6 and Taiwanese to7. In Sino-Xenic languages, 道 is pronounced as Japanese dō, tō, or michi; Korean do or to; and Vietnamese đạo, dạo, or nhạo.
Since 1982, when the International Organization for Standardization adopted Pinyin as the standard romanization of Chinese, many Western languages have changed from spelling this loanword dao in national systems (e.g., French EFEO Chinese transcription and English Wade–Giles) to dao in Pinyin.
The dao/dao "the way" English word of Chinese origin has three meanings, according to the Oxford English Dictionary.

1. a. In Daoism, an absolute entity which is the source of the universe; the way in which this absolute entity functions.
1. b. = Daoism, daoist
2. In Confucianism and in extended uses, the way to be followed, the right conduct; doctrine or method.

The earliest recorded usages were Dao (1736), Tau (1747), Taou (1831), and Dao (1971).
A derivative, Daoshi (Chinese: 道士, "Daoist priest"), was used already by the Jesuits Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault in their De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas, rendered as Tausu in the original Latin edition (1615),^[41] and Tausa in an early English translation published by Samuel Purchas (1625).^[42]

[edit] See also

Look up 道 in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Look up tao in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Taoism portal

• Daoism–Taoism romanization issue
• Dharma
• Logos
• Dō
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• Rta

[edit] Notes

1. ^ Dao De Jing, Chapter 1. "It is from the unnamed Dao
   That Heaven and Earth sprang;
   The named is but
   The Mother of the ten thousand creatures."
2. ^ I Ching, Ta Chuan (Great Treatise). "The kind man discovers it and calls it kind;
   the wise man discovers it and calls it wise;
   the common people use it every day
   and are not aware of it."

[edit] Citations

1. ^ DeFrancis (1996) p. 113
2. ^ LaFargue (1992), pp. 245–7.
3. ^ Chan (1963) p. 136
4. ^ Hansen (2000), p. 206.
5. ^ Liu (1981), pp. 1-3.
6. ^ Liu (1981), pp. 2–3.
7. ^ Cane (2002), p. 13.
8. ^ Keller (2003), p. 289.
9. ^ LaFargue (1994) p. 283.
10. ^ Water is soft and flexible, yet possesses an immense power to overcome obstacles and alter landscapes, even carving canyons with its slow and steady persistence. It is viewed as a reflection of, or close in action, to Dao. Dao is often expressed as a sea or flood that cannot be dammed or denied. It flows around and over obstacles like water, setting an example for those who wish to live in accord with it.Ch'eng and Cheng (1991), pp. 175–7.
11. ^ Maspero (1981), p. 32.
12. ^ Bodde & Fung (1997), pp. 99–101.
13. ^ Kohn (1993), p. 11.
14. ^ Kohn (1993), pp. 11–12.
15. ^ Kohn (1993), p. 12.
16. ^ Fowler (2005), pp. 5–7.
17. ^ Kohn (1993), pp. 11–12.
18. ^ Moeller (2006) pp. 133–145.
19. ^ Fowler (2005), pp. 5–6.
20. ^ Mair (2001) p. 174
21. ^ Robinet (1997), p. 3.
22. ^ Kirkland (2004) p. 2.
23. ^ ^{a b c d e} Taylor & Choy (2005), p. 589.
24. ^ Dumoulin (2005), pp. 63–65.
25. ^ Hershock (1996), pp. 67–70.
26. ^ Lewis, C.S., The Abolition of Man; pg 18
27. ^ Boodberg (1957), p. 599
28. ^ 1.5 and 2.8, tr. Lau (1979), p. 59 and p. 63.
29. ^ Karlgren (1957).
30. ^ Zhou (1972).
31. ^ Pulleyblank (1991).
32. ^ Baxter (1992).
33. ^ Schuessler (2007).
34. ^ Li (1971).
35. ^ Hanyu Da Zidian 漢語大字典 (1989), pp. 3864–3866.
36. ^ DeFrancis (2007), pp. 172, 829.
37. ^ Boodberg (1957), p. 602.
38. ^ Mair (1990), p. 132.
39. ^ Schuessler (2007), p. 207
40. ^ Schuessler (2007), p. 48 and 41.
41. ^ De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas suscepta ab Societate Jesu, Book One, Chapter 10, p. 125. Quote: "sectarii quidam Tausu vocant". Chinese gloss in Pasquale M. d' Elia, Matteo Ricci. Fonti ricciane: documenti originali concernenti Matteo Ricci e la storia delle prime relazioni tra l'Europa e la Cina (1579-1615), Libreria dello Stato, 1942; can be found by searching for "tausu" at http://books.google.com.au/books?id=zRw8AAAAMAAJ. Louis J. Gallagher (China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Matteo Ricci; 1953), apparently has a typo (Taufu instead of Tausu) in the text of his translation of this line (p. 102), and Tausi in the index (p. 615)
42. ^ A discourse of the Kingdome of China, taken out of Ricius and Trigautius, containing the countrey, people, government, religion, rites, sects, characters, studies, arts, acts ; and a Map of China added, drawne out of one there made with Annotations for the understanding thereof (excerpts from De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas, in English translation) in Purchas his Pilgrimes, Volume XII, p. 461 (1625). Quote: "... Lauzu ... left no Bookes of his Opinion, nor seemes to have intended any new Sect, but certaine Sectaries, called Tausa, made him the head of their sect after his death..." Can be found in the full text of "Hakluytus posthumus" on archive.org. The book also appears on Google Books, but only in snippet view.

[edit] Bibliography

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• Moeller, Hans-Georg. The Philosophy of the Daodejing. (Columbia University Press, 2006). ISBN 0-231-13679-X.
• Pulleyblank, E.G. "Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin" (UBC Press, 1991).
• Schuessler, Axel. ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese (University of Hawaii Press, 2007).
• Sharot, Stephen. A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion (New York: NYU Press, 2001). ISBN 0-8147-9805-5.
• Taylor, Rodney Leon & Choy, Howard Yuen Fung. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Confucianism: N-Z, Volume 2 of The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Confucianism (Rosen Publishing Group, 2005). ISBN 0-8239-4081-0.
• Watts, Alan Wilson. Tao: The Watercourse Way with Al Chung-liang Huang (Pantheon, 1977). ISBN 0-394-73311-8 .
• Zhou Fagao 周法高 . "Shanggu Hanyu he Han-Zangyu 上古漢語和漢藏語" (Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong 1972 5:159–244). (Chinese)

[edit] Further reading

• [1]
• Gia-Fu Feng & Jane English (translators). 1972. Laozi/Dao De Jing. New York: Vintage Books.
• Komjathy, Louis. Handbooks for Daoist Practice. 10 vols. Hong Kong: Yuen Yuen Institute, 2008.
• Robinet, Isabelle. Taoism: Growth of a Religion (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997 [original French 1992]) page 14,20. ISBN 0-8047-2839-9.
• Dao entry from Center for Daoist Studies

[show] v t e Chinese philosophy Schools of Thought Agriculturalism Confucianism Daoism Han learning Legalism Mohism Neo-Confucianism Neo-Daoism New Confucianism School of Diplomacy School of Names School of Naturalists Yangism See also: Hundred Schools of Thought Philosophers Confucius Feng Youlan Gaozi Gongsun Long Han Feizi Huang Zongxi Jin Yuelin Laozi Li Si Lu Jiuyuan Mencius Mozi Shang Yang Su Qin Sunzi Tu Weiming Wang Fuzhi Wang Yangming Xu Xing Xunzi Yang Zhu Zhang Yi Zhu Xi Zhuangzi Zou Yan Concepts Dào: Way Dé: Virtue Fǎ: Model Jiān ài: Universal Love Jing: Reverence Jìngzuo: Meditation Lĭ: Ritual propriety Li: Law Mìng: Mandate or fate Qì: Energy Qing: Essence Rén: Humaneness Shén: Spirit Si: Reflection Tǐ: Substance Tiān: Divine force Wú wéi: Nonaction Xiào: Filial piety Xin: Disposition or intuition Xing: Human nature Yì: Righteousness Yīnyáng: Interdependent opposites Yòng: Function Zhèngmíng: Rectification of names Zhì: Intention or will; Wisdom or cleverness Zìrán: Self-so or natural Topics Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Social philosophy

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