Technocracy Movement

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

The technocracy movement is a social movement which arose in the early 20th century. Technocracy was highly popular in the USA for a brief period in the early 1930s, when it overshadowed many other proposals for dealing with the crisis of the Great Depression.^[1][2] The technocrats proposed replacing politicians and businesspeople with scientists and engineers who had the technical expertise to manage the economy.^[1]

Contents [hide] 1 Overview 2 Origins 3 United States and Canada 4 Europe 5 References

[edit] Overview

Technocracy advocates contend that price system-based forms of government and economy are structurally incapable of effective action, and promoted a more rational and productive type of society headed by technical experts.^[3]
The coming of the Great Depression ushered in radically different ideas of social engineering,^[4] culminating in reforms introduced by the New Deal^[3][4] By late 1932, various groups across the United States were calling themselves "technocrats" and proposing reforms.^[5]
By the mid-1930s, interest in the technocracy movement was declining. Some historians have attributed the decline of the technocracy movement to the rise of Roosevelt's New Deal.^[6][7]
Many books have discussed the rise and decline of the technocracy movement.^[8] One of these is Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocrat Movement, 1900-1941 by William E. Akin.^[9]

[edit] Origins

The technocratic movement has its origins with the progressive engineers of the early twentieth century and the writings of Edward Bellamy,^[10] along with some of the later works of Thorstein Veblen such as Engineers And The Price System written in 1921.^[11][12][13] William H. Smyth, a Californian engineer, invented the word "technocracy" in 1919 to describe "the rule of the people made effective through the agency of their servants, the scientists and engineers",^[14][15] and in the 1920s it was used to describe the works of Thorsten Veblen.^[16]
Early technocratic organisations formed after the First World War in both Europe and the United States. In the U.S., these included Henry Gantt’s "The New Machine" and Veblen’s "Soviet of Technicians". These organisations folded after a short time, but not before Howard Scott attended a series of "Soviet of Technicians" lectures.^[16]

[edit] United States and Canada

A sign on the outskirts of a Depression-era town about meetings of the local technocracy branch.

Map of the North American Technate.

Howard Scott has been called the "founder of the technocracy movement"^[1] and he started the Technical Alliance in New York near the end of 1919. Members of the Alliance were mostly scientists and engineers. The Technical Alliance started an Energy Survey of North America, which aimed to provide a scientific background from which ideas about a new social structure could be developed.^[17] However the group broke up in 1921^[18] and the survey was not completed.^[19]
In 1932, Scott and others interested in the problems of technological growth and economic change began meeting in New York City. Their ideas gained national attention and the "Committee on Technocracy" was formed at Columbia University, by Howard Scott and Walter Rautenstrauch.^[20] However, the group was short-lived and in January 1933^[21] splintered into two other groups, the "Continental Committee on Technocracy" (led by Harold Loeb) and "Technocracy Incorporated" (led by Scott).^[22][23]
At the core of Scott's vision was "an energy theory of value". Since the basic measure common to the production of all goods and services was energy, he reasoned "that the sole scientific foundation for the monetary system was also energy", and that by using an energy metric instead of a monetary metric (energy certificates or 'energy accounting') a more efficient design of society could be made.^[24] Technocracy Inc. officials wore a uniform, consisting of a "well-tailored double-breasted suit, gray shirt, and blue necktie, with a monad insignia on the lapel", and its members saluted Scott in public.^[3][25]
Public interest in technocracy peaked in the early 1930s:

Technocracy's heyday lasted only from June 16, 1932, when the New York Times became the first influential press organ to report its activities, until January 13, 1933, when Scott, attempting to silence his critics, delivered what some critics called a confusing, and uninspiring address on a well-publicized nationwide radio hookup.^[23]

Following Scott's radio address (Hotel Pierre Address)^[26], the condemnation of both him and technocracy in general reached a peak. The press and businessmen reacted with ridicule and almost unanimous hostility. The American Engineering Council charged the technocrats with "unprofessional activity, questionable data, and drawing unwarranted conclusions".^[27]

The technocrats made a believable case for a kind of technological utopia, but their asking price was too high. The idea of political democracy still represented a stronger ideal than technological elitism. In the end, critics believed that the socially desirable goals that technology made possible could be achieved without the sacrifice of existing institutions and values and without incurring the apocalypse that technocracy predicted.^[28]

The faction-ridden Continental Committee on Technocracy collapsed in October 1936.^[29][30] However, Technocracy Incorporated continued, adopting distinctive red and grey uniforms for its staff and a fleet of cars in these colors.^[31][32] These features brought the organization under suspicion during World War II. The organization was banned in Canada for several years, but the ban was lifted in 1943.^[31]
There were some speaking tours of the USA and Canada in 1946 and 1947, and a motorcade from Los Angeles to Vancouver:^[33]

Hundreds of cars, trucks, and trailers, all regulation grey, from all over the Pacific Northwest, participated. An old school bus, repainted and retrofitted with sleeping and office facilities, a two-way radio, and a public address system, impressed observers. A huge war surplus searchlight mounted on a truck bed was included, and grey-painted motorcycles acted as parade marshalls. A small grey aircraft, with a Monad symbol on its wings, flew overhead. All this was recorded by the Technocrats on 16-mm 900-foot colour film.^[34]

1948 saw a decline in activity and considerable internal dissent. One central factor contributing to this dissent was that "the Price System had not collapsed, and predictions about the expected demise were becoming more and more vague".^[35] Some quite specific predictions about the Price System collapse were made during the Depression, the first giving 1937 as the date, and the second forecasting the collapse as occurring "prior to 1940".^[35]
Membership and activity declined steadily in the years after 1948, but some activity persisted, mostly around Vancouver in Canada and on the West Coast of the United States. Technocracy Incorporated currently maintains a website and distributes a monthly newsletter.^[36]

[edit] Europe

In Great Britain, Political and Economic Planning, a think-tank founded in 1931, also advocated similar economic intervention. In Germany prior to the second world war a technocratic movement based on the American model introduced by Technocracy Incorporated existed which ran afoul with the political system there.^[37]
A Russian movement existed based on similar beginnings from the North American movement also.^[38]Alexander Bogdanov's concept of Tectology bears some semblance to technocratic ideas. Both Bogdanov's fiction and his political writings as presented by Zenovia Sochor,^[39] imply that he expected a coming revolution against capitalism to lead to a technocratic society. The most important of the non-Leninist Bolsheviks may have been Alexander Bogdanov.^[40]

[edit] References

Social movements portal

1. ^ ^{a b c} Peter J. Taylor. Technocratic Optimism, H.T. Odum, and the Partial Transformation of Ecological Metaphor after World War II Journal of the History of Biology, Vol. 21, No. 2, June 1988, p. 213.
2. ^ Edwin T. Layton. Book review: The Technocrats, Prophets of Automation, Technology and Culture, Vol. 9, No. 2 (April, 1968), pp. 256-257.
3. ^ ^{a b c} Beverly H. Burris (1993). Technocracy at work State University of New York Press, p. 28.
4. ^ ^{a b} William E. Aikin (1977). Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocracy Movement 1900-1941, University of California Press, pp. ix-xiii and p. 110.
5. ^ Beverly H. Burris (1993). Technocracy at work State University of New York Press, p. 30.
6. ^ Beverly H. Burris (1993). Technocracy at work State University of New York Press, p. 32.
7. ^ Frank Fischer (1990). Technocracy and the Politics of Expertise, Sage Publications, p. 86.
8. ^ Daniel Nelson. Technocratic abundance Reviews in American History, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 1978, p. 104.
9. ^ Book review: Technocracy and the American Dream, History of Political Economy, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1978, p. 682.
10. ^ Elsner, Jr., Henry (1967). The Technocrats: Prophets of Automation. Syracuse University.
11. ^ Donald R. Stabile, Veblen and the Political Economy of the Engineer: the radical thinker and engineering leaders came to technocratic ideas at the same time, American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol, 45, No. 1, 1986, pp. 43-44.
12. ^ Janet Knoedler and Anne Mayhew. Thorstein Veblen and the Engineers: A Reinterpretation History of Political Economy 1999 Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 255-272.
13. ^ Frank Fischer (1990). Technocracy and the Politics of Expertise, Sage Publications, p. 84.
14. ^ Barry Jones (1995, fourth edition). Sleepers, Wake! Technology and the Future of Work, Oxford University Press, p. 214.
15. ^ Raymond, Allen (1933). What is Technocracy?.
16. ^ ^{a b} Akin, William E. (1977). Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocrat Movement, 1900-1941. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03110-5.
17. ^ "Questioning of M. King Hubbert, Division of Supply and Resources, before the Board of Economic Warfare" (PDF). 1943-04-14. http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/Technocracy1943.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-04. p8-9 (p18-9 of PDF)
18. ^ William E. Aikin (1977). Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocracy Movement 1900-1941, University of California Press, p. 37.
19. ^ William E. Aikin (1977). Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocracy Movement 1900-1941, University of California Press, pp. 61-62.
20. ^ William E. Aikin (1977). Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocracy Movement 1900-1941, University of California Press, p. ix.
21. ^ William E. Aikin (1977). Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocracy Movement 1900-1941, University of California Press, p. 96.
22. ^ Jack Salzman (1986). American studies: an annotated bibliography, Volume 2 p. 1596.
23. ^ ^{a b} Howard P. Segal (2005). Technological Utopianism in American Culture Syracuse University Press, p. 123.
24. ^ David E. Nye (1992). Electrifying America: social meanings of a new technology, 1880-1940 pp. 343-344.
25. ^ William E. Aikin (1977). Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocracy Movement 1900-1941, University of California Press, p. 101.
26. ^ http://web.archive.org/web/20010520151538/www.technocracy.org/periodicals/technocracy/a19/hotel-pierre.html
27. ^ William E. Aikin (1977). Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocracy Movement 1900-1941, University of California Press, p. 88.
28. ^ William E. Aikin (1977). Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocracy Movement 1900-1941, University of California Press, p. 150.
29. ^ Harold Loeb and Howard P. Segal (1996). Life in a technocracy: what it might be like p. xv.
30. ^ Howard P. Segal (2005). Technological Utopianism in American Culture Syracuse University Press, p. 123.
31. ^ ^{a b} David Adair (1967). The Technocrats 1919-1967: A Case Study of Conflict and Change in a Social Movement
32. ^ Frank Fischer (1990). Technocracy and the Politics of Expertise, Sage Publications, p. 86.
33. ^ David Adair (1967). The Technocrats 1919-1967: A Case Study of Conflict and Change in a Social Movement p. 101.
34. ^ David Adair (1967). The Technocrats 1919-1967: A Case Study of Conflict and Change in a Social Movement p. 103.
35. ^ ^{a b} David Adair (1967). The Technocrats 1919-1967: A Case Study of Conflict and Change in a Social Movement p. 111.
36. ^ http://www.technocracy.org
37. ^ [1] Science, Technology, and National Socialism By Monika Renneberg, Mark Walker Retrieved Aug-30-09
38. ^ [2] Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: a short history By Loren R. Graham Retrieved Aug-30-09
39. ^ Zenovia Sochor: Revolution and Culture:The Bogdanov-Lenin Controversy, Cornell University Press 1988
40. ^ http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/apr07/page10.html

Technocracy.

This article is about the form of government. For other uses, see Technocracy (disambiguation).

Part of a series on
Politics
Primary topics[show] Index of politics articlesPolitics by country Politics by subdivision Political economy Political history Political history of the world Political philosophy
Political systems[show] AnarchistCapitalist City-state Communist Democracy Federacy Feudalism Mixed economy Dictatorship Directorial Meritocracy Monarchy Parliamentary Presidential Semi-presidential Theocracy
Academic disciplines[show] Political sciencePolitical scientists International relations (theory) Comparative politics
Public administration[show] BureaucracyStreet-level bureaucracy Adhocracy
Policy[show] Public policy (Legal doctrine)Public interest Foreign policy
Organs of government[show] Separation of powersLegislature Executive Judiciary Electoral branch
Other topics[show] SovereigntyTheories of political behavior Biology and political orientation
Subseries[show] ElectionsElectoral systems Voting Federalism Form of government Ideology Political campaigning Political parties
Politics portal
v t e

Part of the Politics series
Basic forms of government
Power structure
Confederal Federal Hegemony Imperial Unitary
Power source
Democracy Direct Representative Other Monarchy Absolute Constitutional Oligarchy Aristocracy Meritocracy Military junta Plutocracy Stratocracy Technocracy Timocracy Other Anarchy Authoritarianism Autocracy Despotism Dictatorship Kritarchy Republic Theocracy Totalitarianism
List of forms of government
Politics portal
v t e

Technocracy is a form of government in which experts in technology would be in control of all decision making. Scientists, engineers, and technologists who have knowledge, expertise, or skills, would compose the governing body, instead of politicians, businessmen, and economists.^[1] In a technocracy, decision makers would be selected based upon how knowledgeable and skillful they are in their field.
The term technocracy was originally used to designate the application of the scientific method to solving social problems, in counter distinction to the traditional economic, political, or philosophic approaches. According to the proponents of this concept, the role of money and economic values, political opinions, and moralistic control mechanisms would be eliminated altogether if and when this form of social control should ever be implemented in a continental area endowed with enough natural resources, technically trained personnel, and installed industrial equipment. In such an arrangement, concern would be given to sustainability within the resource base, instead of monetary profitability, so as to ensure continued operation of all social-industrial functions into the indefinite future. Technical and leadership skills would be selected on the basis of specialized knowledge and performance, rather than democratic election by those without such knowledge or skill deemed necessary.^[2]
Some uses of the word technocracy refer to a form of meritocracy, a system where the "most qualified" and those who decide the validity of qualifications are the same people. Other applications have been described as not being an oligarchic human group of controllers, but rather administration by discipline-specific science, ostensibly without the influence of special interest groups.^[3] The word technocracy has also been used to indicate any kind of management or administration by specialized experts ('technocrats') in any field, not just physical science, and the adjective 'technocratic' has been used to describe governments that include non-elected professionals at a ministerial level.^[4][5]

Contents [hide] 1 History of the term 2 Precursors 3 Characteristics 3.1 Technocracy and engineering 4 Technocracy movement 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

[edit] History of the term

The term technocracy derives from the Greek words τέχνη, tekhne meaning skill and κράτος, kratos meaning power, as in government, or rule. William Henry Smyth, a Californian engineer, is usually credited with inventing the word "technocracy" in 1919 to describe "the rule of the people made effective through the agency of their servants, the scientists and engineers", although the word had been used before on several occasions.^[3][6][7][8] Smyth used the term "Technocracy" in his 1919 article "'Technocracy'—Ways and Means to Gain Industrial Democracy," in the journal Industrial Management (57).^[9] Smyth's usage referred to Industrial democracy: a movement to integrate workers into decision making through existing firms or revolution.^[9] In the 1930s, through the influence of Howard Scott and the Technocracy movement that he founded, the term technocracy came to mean government by technical decision making.^[9]

[edit] Precursors

Before the term technocracy was coined, technocratic or quasi-technocratic ideas involving governance by technical experts were promoted by various individuals, most notably early socialist theorists such as Henri de Saint-Simon. This was expressed by the belief in state ownership over the economy, with the function of the state being transformed from one of political rule over men into a scientific administration of things and a direction of processes of production under scientific management.^[10]
Alexander Bogdanov, a Russian scientist and social theorist, also anticipated a conception of technocratic process. Both Bogdanov’s fiction and his political writings, which were highly influential, suggest that he expected a coming revolution against capitalism to lead to a technocratic society.^[11]

[edit] Characteristics

Technocrats are individuals with technical training and occupations who perceive many important societal problems as being solvable, often while proposing technology-focused solutions. The administrative scientist Gunnar K. A. Njalsson theorizes that technocrats are primarily driven by their cognitive "problem-solution mindsets" and only in part by particular occupational group interests. Their activities and the increasing success of their ideas are thought to be a crucial factor behind the modern spread of technology and the largely ideological concept of the "information society". Technocrats may be distinguished from "econocrats" and "bureaucrats" whose problem-solution mindsets differ from those of the technocrats.^[12]
The former government of the Soviet Union has been referred to as a technocracy.^[13] Soviet leaders like Leonid Brezhnev had a technical background in education, and in 1986, 89% of Politburo members were engineers.^[14]
Several governments in European parliamentary democracies have been labeled 'technocratic' based on the participation of unelected experts ('technocrats') in prominent positions.^[4] Since the 1990s, Italy has had several such governments (in Italian, governo tecnico) in times of economic or political crisis,^[15][16] including the current formation in which economist Mario Monti presides over a cabinet of unelected professionals.^[17][18] The term 'technocratic' has been applied to governments where a cabinet of elected professional politicians is led by an unelected prime minister, such as in the cases of the current Greek government led by economist, Lucas Papademos, and the Czech Republic's 2009–2010 caretaker government presided over by the state's chief statistician, Jan Fischer.^[5][19]

[edit] Technocracy and engineering

Following Samuel Haber,^[20] Donald Stabile argues that engineers were faced with a conflict between physical efficiency and cost efficiency in the new corporate capitalist enterprises of the late nineteenth century United States. The profit-conscious, non-technical managers of firms where the engineers work, because of their perceptions of market demand, often impose limits on the projects that engineers desire to undertake.
The prices of all inputs vary with market forces thereby upsetting the engineer's careful calculations. As a result, the engineer loses control over projects and must continually revise plans. To keep control over projects the engineer must attempt to exert control over these outside variables and transform them into constant factors.^[21]
Leaders of the Communist Party of China are mostly professional engineers. The Five-year plans of the People's Republic of China have enabled them to plan ahead in a technocratic fashion to build projects such as the National Trunk Highway System, the China high-speed rail system, and the Three Gorges Dam. ^[22]

[edit] Technocracy movement

Main article: Technocracy movement

The American economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen was an early advocate of Technocracy, and was involved in the Technical Alliance as was Howard Scott and M. King Hubbert (who later developed the theory of peak oil). Veblen believed that technological developments would eventually lead toward a socialistic organization of economic affairs. Veblen saw socialism as one intermediate phase in an ongoing evolutionary process in society that would be brought about by the natural decay of the business enterprise system and by the inventiveness of engineers.^[23] Daniel Bell sees an affinity between Veblen and the Technocracy movement.^[24]
In 1932, Howard Scott and Marion King Hubbert founded Technocracy Incorporated, and proposed that money be replaced by energy certificates denominated in units such as ergs or joules, equivalent in amount to an appropriate national energy budget, which could be divided equally among all members of a North American continental technate. The group argued that apolitical, rational engineers should be vested with authority to guide an economy into a thermodynamically balanced load of production and consumption, thereby doing away with unemployment and debt.^[25]
The Technocracy movement was highly popular in the USA for a brief period in the early 1930s, during the Great Depression. By the mid-1930s, interest in the movement was declining. Some historians have attributed the decline of the technocracy movement to the rise of Roosevelt's New Deal.^[26][27]
Many books have discussed the Technocracy movement.^[28] One of these is Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocrat Movement, 1900–1941 by William E. Akin.^[29]

[edit] See also

• Energy accounting
• Scientism
• Post scarcity
• Thermoeconomics
• Continentalism
• Price System
• Positivism
• Imperial examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy.
• Groupe X-Crise, formed by French former students of the Ecole Polytechnique engineer school in the 1930s
• Redressement Français, a French technocratic movement founded by Ernest Mercier in 1925
• Calculation in kind, a type of resource management proposed for a socialist moneyless society
• The Revolt of the Masses a book by José Ortega y Gasset containing a critique of technocracy
• Player Piano, Kurt Vonnegut's speculative fiction novel describing a technocratic society
• Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt, a book by Nobel prize-winning chemist Frederick Soddy on monetary policy and society and the role of energy in economic systems.

[edit] References

1. ^ Ernst R. Berndt, (1982).“From Technocracy To Net Energy Analysis: Engineers, Economists And Recurring Energy Theories Of Value”, Studies in Energy and the American Economy, Discussion Paper No. 11, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Revised September 1982
2. ^ "Questioning of M. King Hubbert, Division of Supply and Resources, before the Board of Economic Warfare" (PDF). 1943-04-14. http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/Technocracy1943.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-04. p.35 (p.44 of PDF), p.35
3. ^ ^{a b} "History and Purpose of Technocracy by Howard Scott". Technocracy.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090422182206/http://www.technocracy.org/Archives/History%20&%20Purpose-r.htm.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Who, what, why: what can technocrats achieve that politicians can't?". BBC News. 14 November 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-15720438. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
5. ^ ^{a b} "Technocrats—Minds like machines: Government by experts sounds tempting, especially in a crisis. It can work. But brief stints have the best chances.". The Economist. 19 November 2011. http://www.economist.com/node/21538698. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
6. ^ "Who Is A Technocrat? – Wilton Ivie – (1953)". Web.archive.org. 2001-03-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20010311014228/http://www.technocracy.org/periodicals/nwtechnocrat/237/who-is-a-technocrat.html. Retrieved 2012-05-16.
7. ^ Howard Scott Interviewed by Radcliff Student – Origins of Technical Alliance & Technocracy – (1962) on YouTube
8. ^ Barry Jones (1995, fourth edition). Sleepers, Wake! Technology and the Future of Work, Oxford University Press, p. 214.
9. ^ ^{a b c} Oxford English Dictionary 3rd edition (Word from 2nd edition 1989)
10. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica, Saint Simon; Socialism
11. ^ http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/apr07/page10.html
12. ^ Njalsson, Gunnar K. A. (12/05). "From autonomous to socially conceived technology: toward a causal, intentional and systematic analysis of interests and elites in public technology policy". Theoria: a journal of political theory (Berghahn Books) (108): 56–81. ISSN. http://www.berghahnbooks.com/journals/th. Retrieved 2006-12-15.
13. ^ Graham, Loren R. The Ghost of the Executed Engineer: Technology and the Fall of the Soviet Union. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993. 73
14. ^ Graham, 74.
15. ^ Gundle, Stephen (ed.); Parker, Simon (ed.) (1996) [1st. Pub. 1996]. The new Italian Republic: from the fall of the Berlin Wall to Berlusconi. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-12162-0. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vL-20NZx2OQC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=technocratic&f=false. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
16. ^ D'Alimonte, Roberto; Bartolini, Stefano. "'Electoral Transition' and party system change in Italy". In Bull, Martin J; Rhodes, Martin. In: Crisis and transition in Italian politics. Routledge. p. 226. ISBN 0-7146-4366-1. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ny-LuRLiipUC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA226#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
17. ^ MacKenzie, James; Moody, Barry (16 November 2011). "Italy gets new technocrat government". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/16/italy-idUSL5E7MG0PF20111116. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
18. ^ "Italy’s new prime minister — The full Monti: Mario Monti holds out for a technocratic government until 2013". The Economist. 19 November 2011. http://www.economist.com/node/21538778. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
19. ^ "Q&A: Greece's 'technocratic' government". BBC News. 11 November 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15690289. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
20. ^ Haber, Samuel. Efficiency and Uplift Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
21. ^ Stabile, Donald R. (1986). Veblen and the political economy of the engineer: The radical thinker and engineering leaders came to technocratic ideas at the same time. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, (45:1), 43–44.
22. ^ Rise of the Red Engineers by Joel Andrews Stanford University Press 1995
23. ^ The life of Thorstein Veblen and perspectives on his thought, Wood, John (1993). The life of Thorstein Veblen and perspectives on his thought. introd. Thorstein Veblen. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07487-8. ""The decisive difference between Marx and Veblen lay in their respective attitudes on socialism. For while Marx regarded socialism as the ultimate goal for civilization, Veblen saw socialism as but one stage in the economic evolution of society.""
24. ^ Daniel Bell, "Veblen and the New Class", American Scholar, V. 32 (Autumn 1963) (cited in Rick Tilman, Thorstein Veblen and His Critics, 1891–1963, Princeton University Press (1992))
25. ^ http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/2023/SWP-1353-09057784.pdf?sequence=1
26. ^ Beverly H. Burris (1993). Technocracy at work State University of New York Press, p. 32.
27. ^ Frank Fischer (1990). Technocracy and the Politics of Expertise, Sage Publications, p. 86.
28. ^ Daniel Nelson. Technocratic abundance Reviews in American History, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 1978, p. 104.
29. ^ Book review: Technocracy and the American Dream, History of Political Economy, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1978, p. 682.

[edit] External links

• Technocracy: An Alternative Social System – Arvid Peterson – (1980) on YouTube
• Marion King Hubbert, Howard Scott, Technocracy Inc., Technocracy Study Course, New York, 1st Edition, 1934; 5th Edition, 1940, 4th printing, July 1945.

[show] v t e