Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Cognitive behavioral therapy
Intervention
MeSH	D015928

Psychology
History Subfields
Basic science
Abnormal Biological Cognitive Comparative Cultural Differential Developmental Evolutionary Experimental Mathematical Personality Positive Social
Applied science
Applied behavior analysis Clinical Community Consumer Educational Health Industrial and organizational Legal Military Occupational health Political Religion School Sport
Lists
Disciplines Organizations Outline Psychologists Psychotherapies Publications Research methods Theories Timeline Topics
Portal
v t e

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psychotherapeutic approach that addresses dysfunctional emotions, maladaptive behaviors and cognitive processes and contents through a number of goal-oriented, explicit systematic procedures. The name refers to behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, and to therapy based upon a combination of basic behavioral and cognitive principles and research.
CBT is thought to be effective for the treatment of a variety of conditions, including mood, anxiety, personality, eating, substance abuse, tic, and psychotic disorders. Many CBT treatment programs for specific disorders have been evaluated for efficacy; the health-care trend of evidence-based treatment, where specific treatments for symptom-based diagnoses are recommended, has favored CBT over other approaches such as psychodynamic treatments.^[1]
CBT was primarily developed through an integration of behavior therapy (first popularized by Edward Thorndike) with cognitive psychology research, first by Donald Meichenbaum and several other authors with the label of cognitive-behavior modification in the late 1970s. This tradition thereafter merged with earlier work of a few clinicians, labeled as Cognitive Therapy (CT), developed by Aaron Beck, and Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) developed by Albert Ellis. While rooted in rather different theories, these two traditions have been characterised by a constant reference to experimental research to test hypotheses, both at clinical and basic level. Common features of CBT procedures are the focus on the "here and now", a directive or guidance role of therapist, a structuring of the psychotherapy sessions and path, and on alleviating both symptoms and patients' vulnerability.^[2]

Contents [hide] 1 Description 2 Specific applications 2.1 Anxiety disorders 2.2 Schizophrenia, psychosis and mood disorders 2.3 Chronic fatigue syndrome 2.4 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy with older adults 3 Computer-based therapy 4 History 4.1 Behavior therapy roots 4.2 Other roots 5 Evaluation of effectiveness 6 Society and culture 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

[edit] Description

The premise of mainstream cognitive behavioral therapy is that changing maladaptive thinking leads to change in affect and in behavior ^[3] but recent variants emphasize changes in one's relationship to maladaptive thinking rather than changes in thinking itself.^[4] Therapists or computer-based programs use CBT techniques to help individuals challenge their patterns and beliefs and replace "errors in thinking such as overgeneralizing, magnifying negatives, minimizing positives and catastrophizing" with "more realistic and effective thoughts, thus decreasing emotional distress and self-defeating behavior" ^[3] or to take a more open, mindful, and aware posture toward them so as to diminish their impact.^[4] Mainstream CBT helps individuals replace "maladaptive ... coping skills, cognitions, emotions and behaviors with more adaptive ones",^[5] by challenging an individual's way of thinking and the way that he/she reacts to certain habits or behaviors,^[6] but there is still controversy about the degree to which these traditional cognitive elements account for the effects seen with CBT over and above the earlier behavioral elements such as exposure and skills training.^[7] Modern forms of CBT include a number of diverse but related techniques such as exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, cognitive processing therapy, cognitive therapy, relaxation training, dialectical behavior therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy.^[8]
According to Gatchel et al. (2008), CBT has six phases:

1. Assessment

2. Reconceptualization

3. Skills acquisition

4. Skills consolidation and application training

5. Generalization and maintenance

6. Post-treatment assessment follow-up

The reconceptualization phase makes up much of the "cognitive" portion of CBT.^[5] A summary of modern CBT approaches is given by Hofmann .^[9]
There are different protocols for delivering cognitive behavioral therapy, with important similarities among them.^[10] Use of the term CBT may refer to different interventions, including "self-instructions (e.g. distraction, imagery, motivational self-talk), relaxation and/or biofeedback, development of adaptive coping strategies (e.g. minimizing negative or self-defeating thoughts), changing maladaptive beliefs about pain, and goal setting".^[5] Treatment is sometimes manualized, with brief, direct, and time-limited treatments for individual psychological disorders that are specific technique-driven. CBT is used in both individual and group settings, and the techniques are often adapted for self-help applications. Some clinicians and researchers are cognitively oriented (e.g. cognitive restructuring), while others are more behaviorally oriented (e.g. in vivo exposure therapy). Interventions such as imaginal exposure therapy combine both approaches.^[11]
Cognitive behavioral therapy is most closely allied with the scientist–practitioner model, in which clinical practice and research is informed by a scientific perspective, clear operationalization of the problem, and an emphasis on measurement, including measuring changes in cognition and behavior and in the attainment of goals. These are often met through "homework" assignments in which the patient and the therapist work together to craft an assignment to complete before the next session.^[12] The completion of these assignments – which can be as simple as a person suffering from depression attending some kind of social event – indicates a dedication to treatment compliance and a desire to change.^[12] The therapists can then logically gauge the next step of treatment based on how thoroughly the patient completes the assignment.^[12] Effective cognitive behavioral therapy is dependent on a therapeutic alliance between the healthcare practitioner and the person seeking assistance. Unlike many other forms of psychotherapy, the patient is very involved in CBT.^[12] For example, an anxious patient may be asked to talk to a stranger as a homework assignment, but if that is too difficult, he or she can work out an easier assignment first.^[12] The therapist needs to be flexible and willing to listen to the patient rather than acting as an authority figure.^[12]

[edit] Specific applications

CBT has been applied in both clinical and non-clinical environments to treat disorders such as personality conditions and behavioral problems.^[13] A systematic review of CBT in depression and anxiety disorders concluded that "CBT delivered in primary care, especially including computer- or Internet-based self-help programs, is potentially more effective than usual care and could be delivered effectively by primary care therapists."^[14]
In adults, CBT has been shown to have a role in the treatment plans for anxiety disorders,^[15] depression,^[16] eating disorders,^[17] chronic low back pain,^[5] personality disorders,^[18] psychosis,^[19] schizophrenia,^[20] substance use disorders,^[21] in the adjustment, depression, and anxiety associated with fibromyalgia,^[3] and with post-spinal cord injuries.^[22]
In children or adolescents, CBT is an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders,^[23] body dysmorphic disorder,^[24] depression and suicidality,^[25] eating disorders and obesity,^[26] obsessive–compulsive disorder,^[27] and posttraumatic stress disorder,^[28] as well as tic disorders, trichotillomania, and other repetitive behavior disorders.^[29]
Emerging evidence suggests a possible role for CBT in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),^[30] hypochondriasis,^[31] multiple sclerosis,^[32] sleep disturbances related to aging,^[33] dysmenorrhea,^[34] and bipolar disorder,^[35] but more study is needed and results should be interpreted with caution. CBT has been studied as an aid in the treatment of anxiety associated with stuttering. Initial studies have shown CBT to be effective in reducing social anxiety in adults who stutter,^[36] but not in reducing stuttering frequency.^[37][38]
Cochrane reviews have found no evidence that CBT is effective for tinnitus, although there appears to be an effect on management of associated depression and quality of life in this condition.^[39] Other recent Cochrane Reviews found no convincing evidence that CBT training helps foster care providers manage difficult behaviors in the youth under their care,^[40] nor was it helpful in treating men who abuse their intimate partners.^[41]
In the case of metastatic breast cancer, a Cochrane Review published in 2008 maintained that the current body of evidence is not sufficient to rule out the possibility that psychological interventions may cause harm to women with this advanced neoplasm.^[42]
In the United Kingdom, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) recommends CBT in the treatment plans for a number of mental health difficulties, including posttraumatic stress disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), bulimia nervosa, and clinical depression.

[edit] Anxiety disorders

CBT has been shown to be effective in the treatment of all anxiety disorders.^[43]Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the most widely-used therapy for anxiety disorders. It is effective in the treatment of panic disorder, phobias, social anxiety disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder, and many other mental conditions.^[44]
A basic concept in some CBT treatments used in anxiety disorders is in vivo exposure, a term describing a technique where the patient is gradually exposed to the actual, feared stimulus. The treatment is based on the theory that the fear response has been classically conditioned, and that avoidance of it negatively reinforces and maintains the fear. This "two-factor" model is often credited to O. Hobart Mowrer.^{[45][page needed]} Through exposure to the stimulus, this harmful conditioning can be "unlearned" (referred to as extinction and habituation).

[edit] Schizophrenia, psychosis and mood disorders

Cognitive behavioral therapy has been shown as an effective treatment for clinical depression.^[16] The American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines (April 2000) indicated that, among psychotherapeutic approaches, cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy had the best-documented efficacy for treatment of major depressive disorder.^[46] One etiological theory of depression is Aaron T. Beck's cognitive theory of depression. His theory states that depressed people think the way they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations. According to this theory, depressed people acquire a negative schema of the world in childhood and adolescence as an effect of stressful life events, and the negative schema is activated later in life when the person encounters similar situations.^[47]
Beck also described a negative cognitive triad, made up of the negative schemata and cognitive biases of the person, theorizing that depressed individuals make negative evaluations of themselves, the world, and the future. Depressed people, according to this theory, have views such as, "I never do a good job", "It is impossible to have a good day", and "things will never get better." A negative schema helps give rise to the cognitive bias, and the cognitive bias helps fuel the negative schema. This is the negative triad. Beck further proposed that depressed people often have the following cognitive biases: arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, over-generalization, magnification, and minimization. These cognitive biases are quick to make negative, generalized, and personal inferences of the self, thus fueling the negative schema.^[47]
In long-term psychoses, CBT is used to complement medication and is adapted to meet individual needs. Interventions particularly related to these conditions include exploring reality testing, changing delusions and hallucinations, examining factors which precipitate relapse, and managing relapses.^[19] Several meta-analyses have shown CBT to be effective in schizophrenia,^[20][48] and the American Psychiatric Association includes CBT in its schizophrenia guideline as an evidence-based treatment. There is also some (limited) evidence of effectiveness for CBT in bipolar disorder^[35] and severe depression.^[49]
A 2010 meta-analysis found that no trial employing both blinding and psychological placebo has shown CBT to be effective in either schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, and that the effect size of CBT was small in major depressive disorder. They also found a lack of evidence to conclude that CBT was effective in preventing relapses in bipolar disorder.^[50] Evidence that severe depression is mitigated by CBT is also lacking, with anti-depressant medications still viewed as significantly more effective than CBT,^[16] although success with CBT for depression was observed beginning in the 1990s.^[51]

[edit] Chronic fatigue syndrome

This section requires expansion. (May 2012)

CBT has been shown to be moderately effective for treating chronic fatigue syndrome.^[52]

[edit] Cognitive Behavioral Therapy with older adults

CBT is used to help people of all ages, but the therapy should be adjusted based on the age of the patient with which the therapist is dealing. Older individuals in particular have certain characteristics that need to be acknowledged and the therapy altered to account for these differences thanks to age.^[53] Some of the challenges to CBT because of age include the following:

The Cohort Effect

The times that each generation lives through partially shape their thought processes as well as values, so a 70 year-old may react very differently to the therapy than a 30 year-old, because of the different culture they were brought up in. A tie-in to this effect is that each generation has to interact with one another, and the differing values clashing with one another may make the therapy more difficult.^[53]

Established Role

By the time one reaches old age, the person has a definitive idea of their role in life and is invested in that role. This social role can dominate who the person thinks they are and may make it difficult to adapt to the changes required in CBT therapy.^[53]

Mentality toward Aging

If the older individual sees aging itself as a negative, this can exacerbate whatever malady the therapy is trying to help (depression and anxiety for example).^[53]

Processing Speed Decreases

As we age, we take longer to learn new information, and as a result may take more time to learn and retain the cognitive therapy. Therefore, therapists should slow down the pacing of the therapy and use any tools both written and verbal that will improve the retention of the cognitive behavioral therapy.^[53]

Later Age Hardships

Problems that are found more in later life versus dealing with younger individuals, such as chronic illness, disability, and grief from loss of loved ones, can also affect the patient’s mentality and greatly influence the work and efficacy of any CBT therapy.^[54]

[edit] Computer-based therapy

Computerized Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CCBT) has been described by NICE as a "generic term for delivering CBT via an interactive computer interface delivered by a personal computer, internet, or interactive voice response system",^[55] instead of face-to-face with a human therapist. While it cannot replace face-to-face therapy, this can provide an option for patients, especially in light of prohibitive costs and lack of availability associated with retaining a human therapist. A relatively new avenue of research is the combination of artificial intelligence and CCBT. It has been proposed to use modern technology to create CCBT that simulates face-to-face therapy. This might be achieved in cognitive behaviour therapy for a specific disorders using the comprehensive domain knowledge of CBT.^[56] One area where this has been attempted, is the specific domain area of social anxiety in those who stutter.^[57]
Randomized controlled trials have, however, proven the effectiveness of CCBT in treating depression and anxiety disorders,^[14] and in February 2006 NICE recommended that CCBT be made available for use within the NHS across England and Wales for patients presenting with mild-to-moderate depression, rather than immediately opting for antidepressant medication.^[55] The 2009 NICE guideline recognized that there are likely to be a number of computerized CBT products that are useful to patients. They have, however, removed their endorsement of any specific product.^[58]

[edit] History

[edit] Behavior therapy roots

Precursors of certain fundamental aspects of CBT have been identified in various ancient philosophical traditions, particularly Stoicism.^{[59][page needed]} For example, Aaron T. Beck's original treatment manual for depression states, "The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers".^[60] The modern roots of CBT can be traced to the development of behavior therapy in the early 20th century, the development of cognitive therapy in the 1960s, and the subsequent merging of the two. Behaviorally-centered therapeutic approaches appeared as early as 1924^[2] with Mary Cover Jones' work on the unlearning of fears in children.^[61] In 1937, American psychiatrist Abraham Low developed cognitive training techniques for patient aftercare following psychiatric hospitalization.^{[62][63][64][65]}
It was during the period 1950 to 1970 that behavioral therapy became widely utilized by researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and South Africa, who were inspired by the behaviorist learning theory of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and Clark L. Hull.^[2] In Britain, this work was mostly focused on the neurotic disorders through the work of Joseph Wolpe, who applied the findings of animal experiments to his method of systematic desensitization,^[66] the precursor to today's fear reduction techniques.^[2] British psychologist Hans Eysenck, inspired by the writings of Karl Popper, criticized psychoanalysis in arguing that "if you get rid of the symptoms, you get rid of the neurosis",^{[67][page needed]} and presented behavior therapy as a constructive alternative.^[2][68] In the United States, psychologists were applying the radical behaviorism of B. F. Skinner to clinical use. Much of this work was concentrated on severe chronic psychiatric disorders, such as psychotic behavior^{[69][page needed]} and autism.^[2][70]

[edit] Other roots

Although the early behavioral approaches were successful in many of the neurotic disorders, they had little success in treating depression.^[2] Behaviorism was also losing in popularity due to the so-called "cognitive revolution". The therapeutic approaches of Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck gained popularity among behavior therapists, despite the earlier behaviorist rejection of "mentalistic" concepts like thoughts and cognitions. Both of these systems included behavioral elements and interventions and primarily concentrated on problems in the present. Albert Ellis' system, originated in the early 1950s, was first called rational therapy, and can (arguably) be called one of the first forms of cognitive behavioral therapy. It was partly founded as a reaction against popular psychotherapeutic theories at the time (mainly psychoanalysis).^{[71][page needed]} Beck, inspired by Ellis, developed cognitive therapy in the 1960s.^{[citation needed]} Beck describes his therapeutic approach as originating in a realization he made while conducting free association with patients in the context of classical psychoanalysis. He noted that patients had not been reporting certain thoughts at the fringe of consciousness - thoughts which often preceded intense emotional reactions. This realization led Beck to begin viewing emotional reactions as resulting from cognitions, rather than understanding emotion within the abstract psychoanalytic framework.^[72] He named these cognitions "automatic thoughts" because he believed that people were not necessarily aware that the cognitions existed, but that they could identify these types of thoughts when questioned closely.^[12] Beck believed that pushing his clients to identify these automatic thoughts was integral to overcoming a particular difficulty.^[12]
In initial studies, cognitive therapy was often contrasted with behavioral treatments to see which was most effective. During the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive and behavioral techniques were merged into cognitive behavioral therapy. Pivotal to this merging was the successful development of treatments for panic disorder by David M. Clark in the UK and David H. Barlow in the US.^[2]
Starting in the late 1950s and continuing through the 1970s, concurrently with the contributions of Ellis and Beck, Arnold A. Lazarus developed what was arguably the first form of "broad-spectrum" cognitive behavioral therapy.^{[citation needed]} He later broadened the focus of behavioral treatment to incorporate cognitive aspects.^{[73][page needed]} Lazarus, seeking to optimize the efficacy of therapy and effect durable treatment using cognitive and behavioral methods, developed a new form of therapy called multimodal therapy, based on CBT, but also including interpersonal relationships, biological factors, physical sensations (as distinct from emotional states), and visual images (as distinct from language-based thinking).^{[citation needed]}
Samuel Yochelson and Stanton Samenow pioneered the idea^{[original research?]} that cognitive behavioral approaches can be used successfully with a population of criminal offenders.^[74]

[edit] Evaluation of effectiveness

In adults, CBT has been shown to have a role in the treatment plans for anxiety disorders,^[15] depression,^[16] eating disorders,^[17] chronic low back pain,^[5] personality disorders,^[18] psychosis,^[19] schizophrenia,^[20] substance use disorders,^[21] in the adjustment, depression, and anxiety associated with fibromyalgia,^[3] and with post-spinal cord injuries.^[22]
In children or adolescents, CBT is an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders,^[23] body dysmorphic disorder,^[24] depression and suicidality,^[25] eating disorders and obesity,^[26] obsessive–compulsive disorder,^[27] and posttraumatic stress disorder,^[28] as well as tic disorders, trichotillomania, and other repetitive behavior disorders.^[29]
Cochrane reviews have found no evidence that CBT is effective for tinnitus, although there appears to be an effect on management of associated depression and quality of life in this condition.^[39] Other recent Cochrane Reviews found no convincing evidence that CBT training helps foster care providers manage difficult behaviors in the youth under their care,^[40] nor was it helpful in treating men who abuse their intimate partners.^[41]
According to a 2004 French study conducted by INSERM, cognitive behavioral therapy was the most effective therapy when compared with psychoanalysis and family or couples therapy.^[75] The study used meta-analysis of over a hundred secondary studies to find some level of effectiveness that was either "proven" or "presumed" to exist. Of the treatments CBT was found to be presumed or proven effective at treating schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress, anxiety disorders, bulimia, anorexia, personality disorders and alcohol dependency.^[75]

[edit] Society and culture

The UK's National Health Service announced in 2008 that more therapists would be trained to provide CBT at government expense^[76] as part of an initiative called Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT).^[77] NICE said that CBT would become the mainstay of treatment for non-severe depression, with medication used only in cases where CBT had failed.^[76] Therapists complained that the data does not fully support the attention and funding CBT receives. Psychotherapist and professor Andrew Samuels stated that this constitutes "a coup, a power play by a community that has suddenly found itself on the brink of corralling an enormous amount of money ... Everyone has been seduced by CBT's apparent cheapness."^[76][78] The UK Council for Psychotherapy issued a press release in 2012 saying that the IAPT's policies were undermining traditional psychotherapy and criticized proposals that would limit some approved therapies to CBT,^[79] claiming that they restricted patients to "a watered down version of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), often delivered by very lightly trained staff".^[79]

[edit] See also

• Applied behavior analysis
• Behaviorism
• Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy
• Token economy
• Therapygenetics

[edit] References

1. ^ Lambert MJ, Bergin AE, Garfield SL (2004). "Introduction and Historical Overview". In Lambert MJ. Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–15. ISBN 0-471-37755-4.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Rachman, S (1997). "The evolution of cognitive behaviour therapy". In Clark, D, Fairburn, CG & Gelder, MG. Science and practice of cognitive behaviour therapy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–26. ISBN 0-19-262726-0.
3. ^ ^{a b c d} Hassett AL, Gevirtz RN (May 2009). "Nonpharmacologic treatment for fibromyalgia: patient education, cognitive-behavioral therapy, relaxation techniques, and complementary and alternative medicine". Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. 35 (2): 393–407. doi:10.1016/j.rdc.2009.05.003. PMC 2743408. PMID 19647150. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743408/.
4. ^ ^{a b} Hayes SC, Villatte M, Levin M, Hildebrandt M (2011). "Open, aware, and active: Contextual approaches as an emerging trend in the behavioral and cognitive therapies.". Ann. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 7: 141–168.
5. ^ ^{a b c d e} Gatchel RJ, Rollings KH (2008). "Evidence-informed management of chronic low back pain with cognitive behavioral therapy". Spine J 8 (1): 40–4. doi:10.1016/j.spinee.2007.10.007. PMC 3237294. PMID 18164452. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3237294/.
6. ^ Kozier B (2008). Fundamentals of nursing: concepts, process and practice. Pearson Education. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-13-197653-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=_0_pRyy9McQC.
7. ^ Longmore RJ,Worrell M (2007). "Do we need to challenge thoughts in cognitive behavior therapy?". Clin. Psych. Rev. 27: 173–187.
8. ^ E. B. Foa, Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Guilford, New York, NY, USA, 2nd edition, 2009.
9. ^ Hofmann SG (2011). An Introduction to Modern CBT. Psychological Solutions to Mental Health Problems.. http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-Modern-CBT-Psychological-Solutions/dp/0470971754/ref=ntt_at_ep_dpi_10.
10. ^ Hofmann SG, Sawyer AT, Fang A (September 2010). "The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy". Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 33 (3): 701–10. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.006. PMC 2898899. PMID 20599141. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2898899/.
11. ^ Foa EB, Rothbaum BO, Furr JM (Jan 2003). "Augmenting exposure therapy with other CBT procedures". Psychiatric Annals 33 (1): 47–53.
12. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h [unreliable medical source?]} Martin, Ben. "In-Depth: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy". PsychCentral. http://psychcentral.com/lib/2007/in-depth-cognitive-behavioral-therapy/all/1/. Retrieved March 15, 2012.
13. ^ Butler AC, Chapman JE, Forman EM, Beck AT (January 2006). "The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: a review of meta-analyses". Clin Psychol Rev 26 (1): 17–31. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.003. PMID 16199119.
14. ^ ^{a b} Høifødt RS, Strøm C, Kolstrup N, Eisemann M, Waterloo K (2011). "Effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy in primary health care: a review". Fam Pract 28 (5): 489–504. doi:10.1093/fampra/cmr017. PMID 21555339.
15. ^ ^{a b} Otte C (2011). "Cognitive behavioral therapy in anxiety disorders: current state of the evidence". Dialogues Clin Neurosci 13 (4): 413–21. PMC 3263389. PMID 22275847. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3263389/.
16. ^ ^{a b c d} Driessen E, Hollon SD (September 2010). "Cognitive behavioral therapy for mood disorders: efficacy, moderators and mediators". Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 33 (3): 537–55. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.005. PMC 2933381. PMID 20599132. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2933381/.
17. ^ ^{a b} Murphy R, Straebler S, Cooper Z, Fairburn CG (September 2010). "Cognitive behavioral therapy for eating disorders". Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 33 (3): 611–27. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.004. PMC 2928448. PMID 20599136. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2928448/.
18. ^ ^{a b} Matusiewicz AK, Hopwood CJ, Banducci AN, Lejuez CW (September 2010). "The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for personality disorders". Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 33 (3): 657–85. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.007. PMC 3138327. PMID 20599139. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3138327/.
19. ^ ^{a b c} Gutiérrez M, Sánchez M, Trujillo A, Sánchez L (2009). "Cognitive-behavioral therapy for chronic psychosis" (PDF). Actas Esp Psiquiatr 37 (2): 106–14. PMID 19401859. http://www.actaspsiquiatria.es/repositorio//10/56/ENG/10-56-ENG-106-114-498857.pdf.
20. ^ ^{a b c} Rathod S, Phiri P, Kingdon D (September 2010). "Cognitive behavioral therapy for schizophrenia". Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 33 (3): 527–36. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.009. PMID 20599131.
21. ^ ^{a b} McHugh RK, Hearon BA, Otto MW (September 2010). "Cognitive behavioral therapy for substance use disorders". Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 33 (3): 511–25. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.012. PMC 2897895. PMID 20599130. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2897895/.
22. ^ ^{a b} Mehta S, Orenczuk S, Hansen KT, et al. (February 2011). "An evidence-based review of the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for psychosocial issues post-spinal cord injury". Rehabil Psychol 56 (1): 15–25. doi:10.1037/a0022743. PMC 3206089. PMID 21401282. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3206089/.
23. ^ ^{a b} Seligman LD, Ollendick TH (April 2011). "Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders in youth". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 20 (2): 217–38. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.003. PMC 3091167. PMID 21440852. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3091167/.
24. ^ ^{a b} Phillips KA, Rogers J (April 2011). "Cognitive-behavioral therapy for youth with body dysmorphic disorder: current status and future directions". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 20 (2): 287–304. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.004. PMC 3070293. PMID 21440856. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3070293/.
25. ^ ^{a b} Spirito A, Esposito-Smythers C, Wolff J, Uhl K (April 2011). "Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adolescent depression and suicidality". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 20 (2): 191–204. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.012. PMC 3073681. PMID 21440850. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3073681/.
26. ^ ^{a b} Wilfley DE, Kolko RP, Kass AE (April 2011). "Cognitive-behavioral therapy for weight management and eating disorders in children and adolescents". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 20 (2): 271–85. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.002. PMC 3065663. PMID 21440855. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3065663/.
27. ^ ^{a b} Boileau B (2011). "A review of obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents". Dialogues Clin Neurosci 13 (4): 401–11. PMC 3263388. PMID 22275846. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3263388/.
28. ^ ^{a b} Kowalik J, Weller J, Venter J, Drachman D (September 2011). "Cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder: a review and meta-analysis". J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 42 (3): 405–13. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.02.002. PMID 21458405.
29. ^ ^{a b} Flessner CA (April 2011). "Cognitive-behavioral therapy for childhood repetitive behavior disorders: tic disorders and trichotillomania". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 20 (2): 319–28. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.007. PMC 3074180. PMID 21440858. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3074180/.
30. ^ Knouse LE, Safren SA (September 2010). "Current status of cognitive behavioral therapy for adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder". Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 33 (3): 497–509. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.001. PMC 2909688. PMID 20599129. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2909688/.
31. ^ Thomson AB, Page LA (2007). "Psychotherapies for hypochondriasis". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD006520. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006520.pub2. PMID 17943915.
32. ^ Thomas PW, Thomas S, Hillier C, Galvin K, Baker R (2006). "Psychological interventions for multiple sclerosis". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1): CD004431. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004431.pub2. PMID 16437487.
33. ^ Montgomery P, Dennis J (2003). "Cognitive behavioural interventions for sleep problems in adults aged 60+". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1): CD003161. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003161. PMID 12535460.
34. ^ Proctor ML, Murphy PA, Pattison HM, Suckling J, Farquhar CM (2007). "Behavioural interventions for primary and secondary dysmenorrhoea". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD002248. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002248.pub3. PMID 17636702.
35. ^ ^{a b} da Costa RT, Rangé BP, Malagris LE, Sardinha A, de Carvalho MR, Nardi AE (July 2010). "Cognitive-behavioral therapy for bipolar disorder". Expert Rev Neurother 10 (7): 1089–99. doi:10.1586/ern.10.75. PMID 20586690.
36. ^ O'Brian S, Onslow M (2011). "Clinical management of stuttering in children and adults". BMJ 342: d3742. PMID 21705407.
37. ^ Iverach L, Menzies RG, O'Brian S, Packman A, Onslow M (August 2011). "Anxiety and stuttering: continuing to explore a complex relationship". Am J Speech Lang Pathol 20 (3): 221–32. doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2011/10-0091). PMID 21478283.
38. ^ Menzies RG, Onslow M, Packman A, O'Brian S (September 2009). "Cognitive behavior therapy for adults who stutter: a tutorial for speech-language pathologists". J Fluency Disord 34 (3): 187–200. doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2009.09.002. PMID 19948272.
39. ^ ^{a b} Martinez-Devesa P, Perera R, Theodoulou M, Waddell A (2010). "Cognitive behavioural therapy for tinnitus". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (9): CD005233. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005233.pub3. PMID 20824844.
40. ^ ^{a b} Turner W, Macdonald GM, Dennis JA (2007). "Cognitive-behavioural training interventions for assisting foster carers in the management of difficult behaviour". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1): CD003760. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003760.pub3. PMID 17253496.
41. ^ ^{a b} Smedslund G, Dalsbø TK, Steiro AK, Winsvold A, Clench-Aas J (2007). "Cognitive behavioural therapy for men who physically abuse their female partner". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD006048. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006048.pub2. PMID 17636823.
42. ^ Edwards AG, Hulbert-Williams N, Neal RD (2008). "Psychological interventions for women with metastatic breast cancer". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD004253. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004253.pub3. PMID 18646104.
43. ^ Hofmann SG, Smits JAJ (2008). "Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adult anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials". Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 69 (4): 621–632. doi:10.4088/JCP.v69n0415.
44. ^ Bella Armman. "Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy（CBT） for Anxiety Disorder". Anxiety Disorders and Phobias. http://www.anxietydisorderphobia.com/index.php/cognitive-behavioral-therapy-for-anxiety-disorder/.
45. ^ Mowrer OH (1960). Learning theory and behavior. Wiley, New York. ISBN 0-88275-127-1.
46. ^ "Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Major Depressive Disorder, Second Edition". American Psychiatric Association. 2000. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890423363.48690. http://www.psychiatryonline.com/pracGuide/pracGuideChapToc_7.aspx. Retrieved 2008-12-01.
47. ^ ^{a b} Neale JM, Davison GC (2001). Abnormal psychology (8th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 247. ISBN 0-471-31811-6.
48. ^ Wykes T, Steel C, Everitt B, Tarrier N (May 2008). "Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Schizophrenia: Effect Sizes, Clinical Models, and Methodological Rigor". Schizophr Bull 34 (3): 523–537. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbm114. PMC 2632426. PMID 17962231. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2632426/.
49. ^ Kingdon D and Price J (April 17, 2009). "Cognitive-behavioral Therapy in Severe Mental Illness". Psychiatric Times 26 (5). http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/paranoia/article/10168/1406055?pageNumber=2.
50. ^ Lynch D, Laws KR, McKenna PJ (January 2010). "Cognitive behavioural therapy for major psychiatric disorder: does it really work? A meta-analytical review of well-controlled trials". Psychol Med 40 (1): 9–24. doi:10.1017/S003329170900590X. PMID 19476688.
51. ^ Gloaguen V, Cottraux J, Cucherat M, Blackburn IM (April 1998). "A meta-analysis of the effects of cognitive therapy in depressed patients". J Affect Disord 49 (1): 59–72. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(97)00199-7. PMID 9574861.
52. ^ Chambers D, Bagnall AM, Hempel S, Forbes C (2006). "Interventions for the treatment, management and rehabilitation of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis: an updated systematic review". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 99 (10): 506–20. doi:10.1258/jrsm.99.10.506. PMC 1592057. PMID 17021301. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1592057/.
53. ^ ^{a b c d e} Bienenfeld, D. (2009). "Cognitive therapy with older adults". Psychiatric Annals, 39(9), 828-832.
54. ^ Satre, Derek D.; Knight, Bob G.; David, Steven (1 January 2006). "Cognitive-behavioral interventions with older adults: Integrating clinical and gerontological research.". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 37 (5): 489–498. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.37.5.489.
55. ^ ^{a b} "Depression and anxiety – computerised cognitive behavioural therapy (CCBT)". Nice.org.uk. 2012-01-12. http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA97. Retrieved 2012-02-04.
56. ^ "Online CBT I: Bridging the Gap Between Eliza and Modern Online CBT Treatment Packages therapy (CCBT)". Cambridge Journals. 2009a. http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0813483900002497.
57. ^ "Online CBT II: A Phase I Trial of a Standalone, Online CBT Treatment Program for Social Anxiety in Stuttering". Cambridge Journals. 2009b. http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0813483900002503.
58. ^ "CG91 Depression with a chronic physical health problem: NICE guideline". http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG91/NICEGuidance/pdf/English.
59. ^ Robertson, D (2010). The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac. ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XsOFyJaR5vEC&lpg.
60. ^ Beck AT, Rush AJ, Shaw BF, Emery G (1979). Cognitive Therapy of Depression. New York: Guilford Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-89862-000-7.
61. ^ Jones MC (1924). "Elimination of children's fears". Journal of Experimental Psychology 7 (5): 382–97. doi:10.1037/h0072283.
62. ^ Murray P (December 1996). "Recovery, Inc., as an adjunct to treatment in an era of managed care". Psychiatr Serv 47 (12): 1378–81. PMID 9117478.
63. ^ Kurtz, Linda, Farris (1997). "Chapter 2: Help Characteristics and Change Mechanisms in Self-Help and Support Groups: Change Mechanisms in Self-Help Groups". Self-help and support groups: a handbook for practitioners. SAGE. pp. 24–29. ISBN 0-8039-7099-4. OCLC 35558964.
64. ^ Low A (1945). "The Combined System of Group Psychotherapy and Self-Help as Practiced by Recovery, Inc". Sociometry 8 (3/4): 94–99. doi:10.2307/2785030. JSTOR 2785030.
65. ^ Wechsler H (April 1960). "The self-help organization in the mental health field: Recovery, Inc., a case study". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 130 (4): 297–314. doi:10.1097/00005053-196004000-00004. ISSN 0022-3018. OCLC 13848734. PMID 13843358.
66. ^ Wolpe J (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0509-7.
67. ^ Eysenck, H (1960). Behavior therapy and the neuroses. Pergamon, Oxford.
68. ^ Eysenck HJ (October 1952). "The effects of psychotherapy: an evaluation". J Consult Psychol 16 (5): 319–24. doi:10.1037/h0063633. PMID 13000035.
69. ^ Ayllon T, Azrin N (1968). The token economy. Wiley.
70. ^ Lovaas OI (June 1961). "Interaction between verbal and nonverbal behavior". Child Dev 32: 329–36. PMID 13763751.
71. ^ Ellis A (1975). A New Guide to Rational Living. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-370650-8.
72. ^ Beck, Aaron T., Prisoners of Hate: The Cognitive Basis of Anger, Hostility, and Violence, Harper Collins, 1999, Introduction.
73. ^ Lazarus, Arnold A. (1971). Behavior therapy & beyond. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-036800-7.
74. ^ Samenow, Stanton E.; Yochelson, Samuel (1994). The Criminal Personality: The Change Process. Northvale, N.J: Jason Aronson. ISBN 1-56821-349-2. OCLC 505141632.
75. ^ ^{a b} National Institute for health and medical research (2004), Psychotherapy: Three approaches evaluated, PMID 21348158
76. ^ ^{a b c} Laurance J (December 16, 2008). "The big question: can cognitive behavioural gherapy help people with eating disorders?". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-wellbeing/health-news/the-big-question-can-cognitive-behavioural-therapy-help-people-with-eating-disorders-1128229.html. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
77. ^ Leader D (September 8, 2008). "A quick fix for the soul". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/sep/09/psychology.humanbehaviour. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
78. ^ "CBT superiority questioned at conference". University of East Anglia. July 7, 2008. http://www.uea.ac.uk/mac/comm/media/press/2008/july/CBT+superiority+questioned+at+conference. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
79. ^ ^{a b} "UKCP response to Andy Burnham's speech on mental health" (Press release). UK Council for Psychotherapy. February 1, 2012. http://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/article1488.html. Retrieved April 22, 2012.

[edit] Further reading

• Butler G, Fennell M, and Hackmann A. (2008). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders. New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-869-1
• Dattilio FM, Freeman A. (Eds.) (2007). Cognitive-Behavioral Strategies in Crisis Intervention (3rd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-648-2
• Hofmann, SG. (2011). An Introduction to Modern CBT. Psychological Solutions to Mental Health Problems. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-470-97175-4.
• Willson R, Branch R. (2006). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Dummies. ISBN 978-0-470-01838-5

[edit] External links

• Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT)
• British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies
• National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists

[show] v t e Psychology History Portal Psychologist Basic psychology Abnormal Affective science Affective neuroscience Behaviorism Behavioral neuroscience Cognitive Cognitive neuroscience Comparative Cultural Developmental Differential Evolutionary Experimental Intelligence Mathematical Neuropsychology Personality Positive Psycholinguistics Psychophysics Psychophysiology Social Theoretical Applied psychology Applied Behavior Analysis Assessment Clinical Community psychology Consumer Counseling Educational Forensic Health Industrial and organizational Legal Media Military Occupational health Pastoral Political Psychometrics School Sport and exercise Suicidology Systems Traffic Methodologies Animal testing Archival research Behavior genetics Behavior epigenetics Case study Content analysis Experiments Human subject research Interviews Neuroimaging Observation Qualitative research Quantitative research Self-report inventory Statistical surveys Orientations Adlerian Analytical Behaviorism Cognitive behavioral therapy Cognitivism Descriptive Ecological systems theory Existential therapy Family therapy Feminist therapy Gestalt psychology Humanistic Narrative therapy Philosophy Psychoanalysis Psychodynamic psychotherapy Rational emotive behavior therapy Transpersonal Eminent psychologists Alfred Adler Gordon Allport Albert Bandura Aaron Beck John Bowlby Raymond Cattell Kenneth and Mamie Clark Albert Ellis Erik Erikson Hans Eysenck Leon Festinger Sigmund Freud Harry Harlow Donald O. Hebb Clark L. Hull William James Carl Jung Jerome Kagan Kurt Lewin Ivar Lovaas Abraham Maslow David McClelland George A. Miller Neal E. Miller Walter Mischel Ivan Pavlov Jean Piaget Carl Rogers Stanley Schachter B. F. Skinner Edward Thorndike John B. Watson Wilhelm Wundt Lists Counseling topics Disciplines Important publications Organizations Outline Psychologists Psychotherapies Research methods Schools of thought Timeline Topics See also Wiktionary definition Wiktionary category Wikisource Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikinews Wikibooks

[show] v t e Anxiety disorder: Obsessive–compulsive disorder (F42) History Yale–Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale Biology Neuroanatomy Basal ganglia (striatum) Orbitofrontal cortex Cingulate cortex Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Receptors 5-HT1Dβ 5-HT2A 5-HT2C μ Opioid H2 NK1 M4 NMDA non-NMDA Symptoms Obsessions (associative diagnostic injurious scrupulous pathogenic sexual) Compulsions (impulses, rituals tics) Thought suppression (avoidance) Hoarding (animals, books possessions) Treatment Serotonergics Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Escitalopram Fluoxetine Fluvoxamin Paroxetine Sertraline Citalopram Nefazodone Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors Venlafaxine Desvenlafaxine Duloxetine Monoamine oxidase inhibitors Phenelzine Tranylcypromine Tricyclic antidepressants Clomipramine Serotonergic psychedelics Lysergic acid diethylamide Psilocin Nootropics Inositol Mu opioidergics Hydrocodone Morphine Tramadol Anticholinergics Diphenhydramine NMDA glutamatergics Riluzole NK-1 tachykininergics Aprepitant Other Nicotine Memantine Tautomycin Behavioral Cognitive behavioral therapy (Exposure and response prevention) Organizations OCD Action Notable people Edna B. Foa Stanley Rachman Adam S. Radomsky Jeffrey M. Schwartz Susan Swedo Jeff Bell Emily Colas Popular culture Literature Fictional Matchstick Men Plyushkin Nonfiction Everything in Its Place Just Checking Media Monk As Good as It Gets Matchstick Men The Aviator Adrian Monk Sheldon Cooper Related Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder Obsessional jealousy Purely Obsessional OCD Social anxiety disorder Tourette syndrome M: PSO/PSI mepr dsrd (o, p, m, p, a, d, s), sysi/epon, spvo proc(eval/thrp), drug(N5A/5B/5C/6A/6B/6D)

[show] v t e Psychotherapy and counselling (ICD-9-CM V3 94.3-4, ICD-10-PCS GZ5-GZB) Schools Psychodynamic Psychoanalysis ·Adlerian therapy ·Analytical therapy Cognitive & Behaviorist Behavior therapy ·Cognitive therapy ·Cognitive behavioral therapy ·Rational emotive behavior therapy Humanistic Person-centered therapy ·Existential therapy ·Gestalt therapy ·Logotherapy Other Art therapy ·Dialectical behavior therapy ·Narrative therapy ·Play therapy ·Reality therapy ·Systemic therapy ·Transactional analysis ·More… Approaches Brief psychotherapy ·Counseling ·Nondirective therapy ·Residential treatment Techniques Behavior therapy: Aversion therapy ·Behavior modification ·Desensitization Other individual therapy: Autogenic training ·Biofeedback ·Sleep phase chronotherapy ·Exposure therapy ·Free association ·Hypnotherapy Group psychotherapy: Family therapy ·Psychodrama ·Sensitivity training ·Relationship counseling People Aaron T. Beck ·Albert Ellis ·Alfred Adler ·Carl Gustav Jung ·Carl Rogers ·Erik H. Erikson ·Fritz Perls ·Jacques Lacan ·Irvin Yalom ·Joseph Wolpe ·Karen Horney ·Martin Seligman ·Melanie Klein ·Milton H. Erickson ·Paul Watzlawick · R. D. Laing ·Rollo May ·Salvador Minuchin ·Sigmund Freud ·Viktor Frankl ·Virginia Axline ·Virginia Satir M: PSO/PSI mepr dsrd (o, p, m, p, a, d, s), sysi/epon, spvo proc(eval/thrp), drug(N5A/5B/5C/6A/6B/6D)

[show] v t e Cognitive behavioral therapy (list)